中英文对照的文章4千字左右，关于数学的.

关于小数的数学论文一千字左右~

1、论文摘要中应排除本学科领域已成为常识的内容；切忌把应在引言中出现的内容写入摘要；一般也不要对论文内容作诠释和评论(尤其是自我评价)。
2、不得简单重复题名中已有的信息。
3、结构严谨，表达简明，语义确切。摘要先写什么，后写什么，要按逻辑顺序来安排。句子之间要上下连贯，互相呼应。摘要慎用长句，句型应力求简单。每句话要表意明白，无空泛、笼统、含混之词，但摘要毕竟是一篇完整的短文，电报式的写法亦不足取。摘要不分段。
4、用第三人称。建议采用“对……进行了研究”、“报告了……现状”、“进行了……调查”等记述方法标明一次文献的性质和文献主题，不必使用“本文”、“作者”等作为主语。
5、要使用规范化的名词术语，不用非公知公用的符号和术语。新术语或尚无合适汉文术语的，可用原文或译出后加括号注明原文。
6、除了实在无法变通以外，一般不用数学公式和化学结构式，不出现插图、表格。
7、不用引文，除非该文献证实或否定了他人已出版的著作。
8、缩略语、略称、代号，除了相邻专业的读者也能清楚理解的以外，在首次出现时必须加以说明。科技论文写作时应注意的其他事项，如采用法定计量单位、正确使用语言文字和标点符号等，也同样适用于摘要的编写。摘要编写中的主要问题有：要素不全，或缺目的，或缺方法；出现引文，无独立性与自明性；繁简失当。
9、论文摘要之撰写通常在整篇论文将近完稿期间开始，以期能包括所有之内容。但亦可提早写作，然后视研究之进度作适当修改。有关论文摘要写作时应注意下列事项：
10、整理你的材料使其能在最小的空间下提供最大的信息面。
11、用简单而直接的句子。避免使用成语、俗语或不必要的技术性用语。
12、请多位同僚阅读并就其简洁度与完整性提供意见。
13、删除无意义的或不必要的字眼。但亦不要矫枉过正，将应有之字眼过份删除，如在英文中不应删除必要之冠词如a''an''the等。
14、尽量少用缩写字。在英文的情况较多，量度单位则应使用标准化者。特殊缩写字使用时应另外加以定义。
15、不要将在文章中未提过的数据放在摘要中。
16、不要为扩充版面将不重要的叙述放入摘要中，即使摘要仅能以一两句话概括，就让维持这样吧，切勿画蛇添足。
17、不要将文中之所有数据大量地列于摘要中，平均值与标准差或其它统计指标仅列其最重要的一项即可。
18、不要置放图或表于摘要之中，尽量采用文字叙述。

数学小论文一
关于“0”

0，可以说是人类最早接触的数了。我们祖先开始只认识没有和有，其中的没有便是0了，那么0是不是没有呢？记得小学里老师曾经说过“任何数减去它本身即等于0，0就表示没有数量。”这样说显然是不正确的。我们都知道，温度计上的0摄氏度表示水的冰点（即一个标准大气压下的冰水混合物的温度），其中的0便是水的固态和液态的区分点。而且在汉字里，0作为零表示的意思就更多了，如：1）零碎；小数目的。2）不够一定单位的数量……至此，我们知道了“没有数量是0，但0不仅仅表示没有数量，还表示固态和液态水的区分点等等。”


“任何数除以0即为没有意义。”这是小学至中学老师仍在说的一句关于0的“定论”，当时的除法（小学时）就是将一份分成若干份，求每份有多少。一个整体无法分成0份，即“没有意义”。后来我才了解到a/0中的0可以表示以零为极限的变量（一个变量在变化过程中其绝对值永远小于任意小的已定正数），应等于无穷大（一个变量在变化过程中其绝对值永远大于任意大的已定正数）。从中得到关于0的又一个定理“以零为极限的变量，叫做无穷小”。

“105、203房间、2003年”中，虽都有0的出现，粗“看”差不多；彼此意思却不同。105、2003年中的0指数的空位，不可删去。203房间中的0是分隔“楼（2）”与“房门号（3）”的（即表示二楼八号房），可删去。0还表示……

爱因斯坦曾说：“要探究一个人或者一切生物存在的意义和目的，宏观上看来，我始终认为是荒唐的。”我想研究一切“存在”的数字，不如先了解0这个“不存在”的数，不至于成为爱因斯坦说的“荒唐”的人。作为一个中学生，我的能力毕竟是有限的，对0的认识还不够透彻，今后望（包括行动）能在“知识的海洋”中发现“我的新大陆”。

数学小论文二
各门科学的数学化
数学究竟是什么呢？我们说，数学是研究现实世界空间形式和数量关系的一门科学．它在现代生活和现代生产中的应用非常广泛，是学习和研究现代科学技术必不可少的基本工具．
同其他科学一样，数学有着它的过去、现在和未来．我们认识它的过去，就是为了了解它的现在和未来．近代数学的发展异常迅速，近30多年来，数学新的理论已经超过了18、19世纪的理论的总和．预计未来的数学成就每“翻一番”要不了10年．所以在认识了数学的过去以后，大致领略一下数学的现在和未来，是很有好处的．
现代数学发展的一个明显趋势，就是各门科学都在经历着数学化的过程．
例如物理学，人们早就知道它与数学密不可分．在高等学校里，数学系的学生要学普通物理，物理系的学生要学高等数学，这也是尽人皆知的事实了．
又如化学，要用数学来定量研究化学反应．把参加反应的物质的浓度、温度等作为变量，用方程表示它们的变化规律，通过方程的“稳定解”来研究化学反应．这里不仅要应用基础数学，而且要应用“前沿上的”、“发展中的”数学．
再如生物学方面，要研究心脏跳动、血液循环、脉搏等周期性的运动．这种运动可以用方程组表示出来，通过寻求方程组的“周期解”，研究这种解的出现和保持，来掌握上述生物界的现象．这说明近年来生物学已经从定性研究发展到定量研究，也是要应用“发展中的”数学．这使得生物学获得了重大的成就．
谈到人口学，只用加减乘除是不够的．我们谈到人口增长，常说每年出生率多少，死亡率多少，那么是否从出生率减去死亡率，就是每年的人口增长率呢？不是的．事实上，人是不断地出生的，出生的多少又跟原来的基数有关系；死亡也是这样．这种情况在现代数学中叫做“动态”的，它不能只用简单的加减乘除来处理，而要用复杂的“微分方程”来描述．研究这样的问题，离不开方程、数据、函数曲线、计算机等，最后才能说清楚每家只生一个孩子如何，只生两个孩子又如何等等．
还有水利方面，要考虑海上风暴、水源污染、港口设计等，也是用方程描述这些问题再把数据放进计算机，求出它们的解来，然后与实际观察的结果对比验证，进而为实际服务．这里要用到很高深的数学．
谈到考试，同学们往往认为这是用来检查学生的学习质量的．其实考试手段（口试、笔试等等）以及试卷本身也是有质量高低之分的．现代的教育统计学、教育测量学，就是通过效度、难度、区分度、信度等数量指标来检测考试的质量．只有质量合格的考试才能有效地检测学生的学习质量．
至于文艺、体育，也无一不用到数学．我们从中央电视台的文艺大奖赛节目中看到，给一位演员计分时，往往先“去掉一个最高分”，再“去掉一个最低分”．然后就剩下的分数计算平均分，作为这位演员的得分．从统计学来说，“最高分”、“最低分”的可信度最低，因此把它们去掉．这一切都包含着数学道理．
我国著名的数学家关肇直先生说：“数学的发明创造有种种，我认为至少有三种：一种是解决了经典的难题，这是一种很了不起的工作；一种是提出新概念、新方法、新理论，其实在历史上起更大作用的、历史上著名的正是这种人；还有一种就是把原来的理论用在崭新的领域，这是从应用的角度有一个很大的发明创造．”我们在这里所说的，正是第三种发明创造．“这里繁花似锦，美不胜收，把数学和其他各门科学发展成综合科学的前程无限灿烂．”
正如华罗庚先生在1959年5月所说的，近100年来，数学发展突飞猛进，我们可以毫不夸张地用“宇宙之大、粒子之微、火箭之速、化工之巧、地球之变、生物之谜、日用之繁等各个方面，无处不有数学”来概括数学的广泛应用．可以预见，科学越进步，应用数学的范围也就越大．一切科学研究在原则上都可以用数学来解决有关的问题．可以断言：只有现在还不会应用数学的部门，却绝对找不到原则上不能应用数学的领域．

数学小论文三
数学是什么
什么是数学？有人说：“数学，不就是数的学问吗？”

这样的说法可不对。因为数学不光研究“数”，也研究“形”，大家都很熟悉的三角形、正方形，也都是数学研究的对象。

历史上，关于什么是数学的说法更是五花八门。有人说，数学就是关联；也有人说，数学就是逻辑，“逻辑是数学的青年时代，数学是逻辑的壮年时代。”

那么，究竟什么是数学呢？

伟大的革命导师恩格斯，站在辩证唯物主义的理论高度，通过深刻分析数学的起源和本质，精辟地作出了一系列科学的论断。恩格斯指出：“数学是数量的科学”，“纯数学的对象是现实世界的空间形式和数量关系”。根据恩格斯的观点，较确切的说法就是：数学——研究现实世界的数量关系和空间形式的科学。

数学可以分成两大类，一类叫纯粹数学，一类叫应用 数学。

纯粹数学也叫基础数学，专门研究数学本身的内部规律。中小学课本里介绍的代数、几何、微积分、概率论知识，都属于纯粹数学。纯粹数学的一个显著特点，就是暂时撇开具体内容，以纯粹形式研究事物的数量关系和空间形式。例如研究梯形的面积计算公式，至于它是梯形稻田的面积，还是梯形机械零件的面积，都无关紧要，大家关心的只是蕴含在这种几何图形中的数量关系。

应用数学则是一个庞大的系统，有人说，它是我们的全部知识中，凡是能用数学语言来表示的那一部分。应用数学着限于说明自然现象，解决实际问题，是纯粹数学与科学技术之间的桥梁。大家常说现在是信息社会，专门研究信息的“信息论”，就是应用数学中一门重要的分支学科， 数学有3个最显著的特征。

高度的抽象性是数学的显著特征之一。数学理论都算有非常抽象的形式，这种抽象是经过一系列的阶段形成的，所以大大超过了自然科学中的一般抽象，而且不仅概念是抽象的，连数学方法本身也是抽象的。例如，物理学家可以通过实验来证明自己的理论，而数学家则不能用实验的方法来证明定理，非得用逻辑推理和计算不可。现在，连数学中过去被认为是比较“直观”的几何学，也在朝着抽象的方向发展。根据公理化思想，几何图形不再是必须知道的内容，它是圆的也好，方的也好，都无关紧要，甚至用桌子、椅子和啤酒杯去代替点、线、面也未尝不可，只要它们满足结合关系、顺序关系、合同关系，具备有相容性、独立性和完备性，就能够构成一门几何学。

体系的严谨性是数学的另一个显著特征。数学思维的正确性表现在逻辑的严谨性上。早在2000多年前，数学家就从几个最基本的结论出发，运用逻辑推理的方法，将丰富的几何学知识整理成一门严密系统的理论，它像一根精美的逻辑链条，每一个环节都衔接得丝丝入扣。所以，数学一直被誉为是“精确科学的典范”。

广泛的应用性也是数学的一个显著特征。宇宙之大，粒子之微，火箭之速，化工之巧，地球之变，生物之谜，日用之繁，无处不用数学。20世纪里，随着应用数学分支的大量涌现，数学已经渗透到几乎所有的科学部门。不仅物理学、化学等学科仍在广泛地享用数学的成果，连过去很少使用数学的生物学、语言学、历史学等等，也与数学结合形成了内容丰富的生物数学、数理经济学、数学心理学、数理语言学、数学历史学等边缘学科。

各门科学的“数学化”，是现代科学发展的一大趋势。


给你 选了几篇

Leonhard Euler

Leonhard Euler (pronounced Oiler; IPA [ˈɔʏlɐ]) (April 15, 1707 – September 18 [O.S. September 7] 1783) was a pioneering Swiss mathematician and physicist, who spent most of his life in Russia and Germany. He published more papers than any other mathematician in history.[1]

Euler made important discoveries in fields as diverse as calculus and topology. He also introduced much of the modern mathematical terminology and notation, particularly for mathematical analysis, such as the notion of a mathematical function.[2] He is also renowned for his work in mechanics, optics, and astronomy.

Euler is considered to be the preeminent mathematician of the 18th century and one of the greatest of all time. He is also one of the most prolific; his collected works fill 60–80 quarto volumes.[3] A statement attributed to Pierre-Simon Laplace expresses Euler's influence on mathematics: "Read Euler, read Euler, he is a master for us all".[4]

Euler was featured on the sixth series of the Swiss 10-franc banknote[5] and on numerous Swiss, German, and Russian postage stamps. The asteroid 2002 Euler was named in his honor. He is also commemorated by the Lutheran Church on their Calendar of Saints on May 24.

Contents [hide]
1 Biography
1.1 Childhood
1.2 St. Petersburg
1.3 Berlin
1.4 Eyesight deterioration
1.5 Last stage of life
2 Contributions to mathematics
2.1 Mathematical notation
2.2 Analysis
2.3 Number theory
2.4 Graph theory
2.5 Applied mathematics
2.6 Physics and astronomy
2.7 Logic
3 Philosophy and religious beliefs
4 Selected bibliography
5 See also
6 Notes
7 Further reading
8 External links

[edit] Biography

[edit] Childhood

Swiss 10 Franc banknote honoring Euler, the most successful Swiss mathematician in history.Euler was born in Basel to Paul Euler, a pastor of the Reformed Church, and Marguerite Brucker, a pastor's daughter. He had two younger sisters named Anna Maria and Maria Magdalena. Soon after the birth of Leonhard, the Eulers moved from Basel to the town of Riehen, where Euler spent most of his childhood. Paul Euler was a family friend of the Bernoullis, and Johann Bernoulli, who was then regarded as Europe's foremost mathematician, would eventually be an important influence on the young Leonhard. His early formal education started in Basel, where he was sent to live with his maternal grandmother. At the age of thirteen he matriculated at the University of Basel, and in 1723, received a masters of philosophy degree with a dissertation that compared the philosophies of Descartes and Newton. At this time, he was receiving Saturday afternoon lessons from Johann Bernoulli, who quickly discovered his new pupil's incredible talent for mathematics.[6]

Euler was at this point studying theology, Greek, and Hebrew at his father's urging, in order to become a pastor. Johann Bernoulli intervened, and convinced Paul Euler that Leonhard was destined to become a great mathematician. In 1726, Euler completed his Ph.D. dissertation on the propagation of sound with the title De Sono[7] and in 1727, he entered the Paris Academy Prize Problem competition, where the problem that year was to find the best way to place the masts on a ship. He won second place, losing only to Pierre Bouguer—a man now known as "the father of naval architecture". Euler, however, would eventually win the coveted annual prize twelve times in his career.[8]

[edit] St. Petersburg
Around this time Johann Bernoulli's two sons, Daniel and Nicolas, were working at the Imperial Russian Academy of Sciences in St Petersburg. In July 1726, Nicolas died of appendicitis after spending a year in Russia, and when Daniel assumed his brother's position in the mathematics/physics division, he recommended that the post in physiology that he had vacated be filled by his friend Euler. In November 1726 Euler eagerly accepted the offer, but delayed making the trip to St Petersburg. In the interim he unsuccessfully applied for a physics professorship at the University of Basel.[9]

1957 stamp of the former Soviet Union commemorating the 250th birthday of Euler. The text says: 250 years from the birth of the great mathematician and academician, Leonhard Euler.Euler arrived in the Russian capital on May 17, 1727. He was promoted from his junior post in the medical department of the academy to a position in the mathematics department. He lodged with Daniel Bernoulli with whom he often worked in close collaboration. Euler mastered Russian and settled into life in St Petersburg. He also took on an additional job as a medic in the Russian Navy.[10]

The Academy at St. Petersburg, established by Peter the Great, was intended to improve education in Russia and to close the scientific gap with Western Europe. As a result, it was made especially attractive to foreign scholars like Euler: the academy possessed ample financial resources and a comprehensive library drawn from the private libraries of Peter himself and of the nobility. Very few students were enrolled in the academy so as to lessen the faculty's teaching burden, and the academy emphasized research and offered to its faculty both the time and the freedom to pursue scientific questions.[8]

However, the Academy's benefactress, Catherine I, who had attempted to continue the progressive policies of her late husband, died the day of Euler's arrival. The Russian nobility then gained power upon the ascension of the twelve-year-old Peter II. The nobility were suspicious of the academy's foreign scientists, and thus cut funding and caused numerous other difficulties for Euler and his colleagues.

Conditions improved slightly upon the death of Peter II, and Euler swiftly rose through the ranks in the academy and was made professor of physics in 1731. Two years later, Daniel Bernoulli, who was fed up with the censorship and hostility he faced at St. Petersburg, left for Basel. Euler succeeded him as the head of the mathematics department.[11]

On January 7, 1734, he married Katharina Gsell, daughter of a painter from the Academy Gymnasium. The young couple bought a house by the Neva River, and had thirteen children, of whom only five survived childhood.[12]

[edit] Berlin

Stamp of the former German Democratic Republic honoring Euler on the 200th anniversary of his death. In the middle, it is showing his polyhedral formula.Concerned about continuing turmoil in Russia, Euler debated whether to stay in St. Petersburg or not. Frederick the Great of Prussia offered him a post at the Berlin Academy, which he accepted. He left St. Petersburg on June 19, 1741 and lived twenty-five years in Berlin, where he wrote over 380 articles. In Berlin, he published the two works which he would be most renowned for: the Introductio in analysin infinitorum, a text on functions published in 1748 and the Institutiones calculi differentialis, a work on differential calculus.[13]

In addition, Euler was asked to tutor the Princess of Anhalt-Dessau, Frederick's niece. He wrote over 200 letters to her, which were later compiled into a best-selling volume, titled the Letters of Euler on different Subjects in Natural Philosophy Addressed to a German Princess. This work contained Euler's exposition on various subjects pertaining to physics and mathematics, as well as offering valuable insight on Euler's personality and religious beliefs. This book ended up being more widely read than any of his mathematical works, and was published all across Europe and in the United States. The popularity of the Letters testifies to Euler's ability to communicate scientific matters effectively to a lay audience, a rare ability for a dedicated research scientist.[13]

Despite Euler's immense contribution to the Academy's prestige, he was eventually forced to leave Berlin. This was caused in part by a personality conflict with Frederick. Frederick came to regard him as unsophisticated especially in comparison to the circle of philosophers the German king brought to the Academy. Voltaire was among those in Frederick's employ, and the Frenchman enjoyed a favored position in the king's social circle. Euler, a simple religious man and a hard worker, was very conventional in his beliefs and tastes. He was in many ways the direct opposite of Voltaire. Euler had very limited training in rhetoric and tended to debate matters that he knew little about, making him a frequent target of Voltaire's wit.[13] Frederick also expressed disappointment with Euler's practical engineering abilities:

I wanted to have a water jet in my garden: Euler calculated the force of the wheels necessary to raise the water to a reservoir, from where it should fall back through channels, finally spurting out in Sanssouci. My mill was carried out geometrically and could not raise a mouthful of water closer than fifty paces to the reservoir. Vanity of vanities! Vanity of geometry![14]

[edit] Eyesight deterioration

A 1753 portrait by Emanuel Handmann. This portrayal suggests problems of the right eyelid and that Euler is perhaps suffering from strabismus. The left eye appears healthy, as it was a later cataract that destroyed it.[15]Euler's eyesight worsened throughout his mathematical career. Three years after suffering a near-fatal fever in 1735 he became nearly blind in his right eye, but Euler rather blamed his condition on the painstaking work on cartography he performed for the St. Petersburg Academy. Euler's sight in that eye worsened throughout his stay in Germany, so much so that Frederick referred to him as "Cyclops". Euler later suffered a cataract in his good left eye, rendering him almost totally blind a few weeks after its discovery. Even so, his condition appeared to have little effect on his productivity, as he compensated for it with his mental calculation skills and photographic memory. For example, Euler could repeat the Aeneid of Virgil from beginning to end without hesitation, and for every page in the edition he could indicate which line was the first and which the last.[3]

[edit] Last stage of life

Euler's grave at the Alexander Nevsky Laura.The situation in Russia had improved greatly since the ascension of Catherine the Great, and in 1766 Euler accepted an invitation to return to the St. Petersburg Academy and spent the rest of his life in Russia. His second stay in the country was marred by tragedy. A 1771 fire in St. Petersburg cost him his home and almost his life. In 1773, he lost his wife of 40 years. Euler would remarry three years later.

On September 18, 1783, Euler passed away in St. Petersburg after suffering a brain hemorrhage and was buried in the Alexander Nevsky Laura. His eulogy was written for the French Academy by the French mathematician and philosopher Marquis de Condorcet, and an account of his life, with a list of his works, by Nikolaus von Fuss, Euler's son-in-law and the secretary of the Imperial Academy of St. Petersburg. Condorcet commented,

"...il cessa de calculer et de vivre," (he ceased to calculate and to live).[16]

[edit] Contributions to mathematics
Euler worked in almost all areas of mathematics: geometry, calculus, trigonometry, algebra, and number theory, not to mention continuum physics, lunar theory and other areas of physics. His importance in the history of mathematics cannot be overstated: if printed, his works, many of which are of fundamental interest, would occupy between 60 and 80 quarto volumes[3] and Euler's name is associated with an impressive number of topics. The 20th century Hungarian mathematician Paul Erdős is perhaps the only other mathematician who could be considered to be as prolific.

[edit] Mathematical notation
Euler introduced and popularized several notational conventions through his numerous and widely circulated textbooks. Most notably, he introduced the concept of a function[2] and was the first to write f(x) to denote the function f applied to the argument x. He also introduced the modern notation for the trigonometric functions, the letter e for the base of the natural logarithm (now also known as Euler's number), the Greek letter ∑ for summations and the letter i to denote the imaginary unit.[17] The use of the Greek letter π to denote the ratio of a circle's circumference to its diameter was also popularized by Euler, although it did not originate with him.[18] Euler also contributed to the development of the the history of complex numbers system (the notation system of defining negative roots with a + bi).[19]

[edit] Analysis
The development of calculus was at the forefront of 18th century mathematical research, and the Bernoullis—family friends of Euler—were responsible for much of the early progress in the field. Thanks to their influence, studying calculus naturally became the major focus of Euler's work. While some of Euler's proofs may not have been acceptable under modern standards of rigour,[20] his ideas led to many great advances.

He is well known in analysis for his frequent use and development of power series: that is, the expression of functions as sums of infinitely many terms, such as

Notably, Euler discovered the power series expansions for e and the inverse tangent function. His daring (and, by modern standards, technically incorrect) use of power series enabled him to solve the famous Basel problem in 1735:[20]

A geometric interpretation of Euler's formulaEuler introduced the use of the exponential function and logarithms in analytic proofs. He discovered ways to express various logarithmic functions in terms of power series, and successfully defined logarithms for negative and complex numbers, thus greatly expanding the scope where logarithms could be applied in mathematics.[17] He also defined the exponential function for complex numbers and discovered its relation to the trigonometric functions. For any real number φ, Euler's formula states that the complex exponential function satisfies

A special case of the above formula is known as Euler's identity,

called "the most remarkable formula in mathematics" by Richard Feynman, for its single uses of the notions of addition, multiplication, exponentiation, and equality, and the single uses of the important constants 0, 1, e, i, and π.[21]

In addition, Euler elaborated the theory of higher transcendental functions by introducing the gamma function and introduced a new method for solving quartic equations. He also found a way to calculate integrals with complex limits, foreshadowing the development of modern complex analysis, and invented the calculus of variations including its most well-known result, the Euler-Lagrange equation.

Euler also pioneered the use of analytic methods to solve number theory problems. In doing so, he united two disparate branches of mathematics and introduced a new field of study, analytic number theory. In breaking ground for this new field, Euler created the theory of hypergeometric series, q-series, hyperbolic trigonometric functions and the analytic theory of continued fractions. For example, he proved the infinitude of primes using the divergence of the harmonic series, and used analytic methods to gain some understanding of the way prime numbers are distributed. Euler's work in this area led to the development of the prime number theorem.[22]

[edit] Number theory
Euler's great interest in number theory can be traced to the influence of his friend in the St. Petersburg Academy, Christian Goldbach. A lot of his early work on number theory was based on the works of Pierre de Fermat. Euler developed some of Fermat's ideas while disproving some of his more outlandish conjectures.

One focus of Euler's work was to link the nature of prime distribution with ideas in analysis. He proved that the sum of the reciprocals of the primes diverges. In doing so, he discovered the connection between Riemann zeta function and prime numbers, known as the Euler product formula for the Riemann zeta function.

Euler proved Newton's identities, Fermat's little theorem, Fermat's theorem on sums of two squares, and made distinct contributions to Lagrange's four-square theorem. He also invented the totient function φ(n) which assigns to a positive integer n the number of positive integers less than n and coprime to n. Using properties of this function he was able to generalize Fermat's little theorem to what would become known as Euler's theorem. He further contributed significantly to the understanding of perfect numbers, which had fascinated mathematicians since Euclid. Euler made progress toward the prime number theorem and conjectured the law of quadratic reciprocity. The two concepts are regarded as the fundamental theorems of number theory, and his ideas paved the way for Carl Friedrich Gauss.[23]

[edit] Graph theory
See also: Seven Bridges of Königsberg

Map of Königsberg in Euler's time showing the actual layout of the seven bridges, highlighting the river Pregel and the bridges.In 1736, Euler solved a problem known as the Seven Bridges of Königsberg.[24] The city of Königsberg, Prussia (now Kaliningrad, Russia) is set on the Pregel River, and included two large islands which were connected to each other and the mainland by seven bridges. The question is whether it is possible to walk with a route that crosses each bridge exactly once, and return to the starting point. It is not; and therefore not an Eulerian circuit. This solution is considered to be the first theorem of graph theory and planar graph theory.[24] Euler also introduced the notion now known as the Euler characteristic of a space and a formula relating the number of edges, vertices, and faces of a convex polyhedron with this constant. The study and generalization of this formula, specifically by Cauchy[25] and L'Huillier,[26] is at the origin of topology.

[edit] Applied mathematics
Some of Euler's greatest successes were in using analytic methods to solve real world problems, describing numerous applications of Bernoulli's numbers, Fourier series, Venn diagrams, Euler numbers, e and π constants, continued fractions and integrals. He integrated Leibniz's differential calculus with Newton's method of fluxions, and developed tools that made it easier to apply calculus to physical problems. He made great strides in improving the numerical approximation of integrals, inventing what are now known as the Euler approximations. The most notable of these approximations are Euler's method and the Euler-Maclaurin formula. He also facilitated the use of differential equations, in particular introducing the Euler-Mascheroni constant:

One of Euler's more unusual interests was the application of mathematical ideas in music. In 1739 he wrote the Tentamen novae theoriae musicae, hoping to eventually integrate musical theory as part of mathematics. This part of his work, however, did not receive wide attention and was once described as too mathematical for musicians and too musical for mathematicians.[27]

[edit] Physics and astronomy
Euler helped develop the Euler-Bernoulli beam equation, which became a cornerstone of engineering. Aside from successfully applying his analytic tools to problems in classical mechanics, Euler also applied these techniques to celestial problems. His work in astronomy was recognized by a number of Paris Academy Prizes over the course of his career. His accomplishments include determining with great accuracy the orbits of comets and other celestial bodies, understanding the nature of comets, and calculating the parallax of the sun. His calculations also contributed to the development of accurate longitude tables.[28]

In addition, Euler made important contributions in optics. He disagreed with Newton's corpuscular theory of light in the Opticks, which was th

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