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给一篇2000字左右的和中药提取相关的文章，要好翻译的最好附带翻译的。谢谢了~

中药有效成分的提取


（一）溶剂提取法：

1．溶剂提取法的原理：溶剂提取法是根据中草药中各种成分在溶剂中的溶解性质，选用对活性成分溶解度大，对不需要溶出成分溶解度小的溶剂，而将有效成分从药材组织内溶解出来的方法。当溶剂加到中草药原料（需适当粉碎）中时，溶剂由于扩散、渗透作用逐渐通过细胞壁透入到细胞内，溶解了可溶性物质，而造成细胞内外的浓度差，于是细胞内的浓溶液不断向外扩散，溶剂又不断进入药材组织细胞中，如此多次往返，直至细胞内外溶液浓度达到动态平衡时，将此饱和溶液滤出，继续多次加入新溶剂，就可以把所需要的成分近于完全溶出或大部溶出。

中草药成分在溶剂中的溶解度直接与溶剂性质有关。溶剂可分为水、亲本性有机溶剂及亲脂性有机溶剂，被溶解物质也有亲水性及亲脂性的不同。

有机化合物分子结构中亲水性基团多，其极性大而疏于油；有的亲水性基团少，其。极性小而疏于水。这种亲水性、亲脂性及其程度的大小，是和化合物的分子结构直接相关。一般来说，两种基本母核相同的成分，其分子中功能基的极性越大，或极性功能基数量越多，则整个分子的极性大，亲水性强，而亲脂性就越弱，其分子非极性部分越大，或碳键越长，则极性小，亲脂性强，而亲水性就越弱。

各类溶剂的性质，同样也与其分子结构有关。例如甲醇、乙醇是亲水性比较强的溶剂，它们的分子比较小，有羟基存在，与水的结构很近似，所以能够和水任意混合。丁醇和戊醇分子中虽都有羟基，保持和水有相似处，但分子逐渐地加大，与水性质也就逐渐疏远。所以它们能彼此部分互溶，在它们互溶达到饱和状态之后，丁醇或戊醇都能与水分层。氯仿、苯和石油醚是烃类或氯烃衍生物，分子中没有氧，属于亲脂性强的溶剂。

这样，我们就可以通过时中草药成分结构分析，去估计它们的此类性质和选用的溶剂。例如葡萄糖、蔗糖等分子比较小的多羟基化合物，具有强亲水性，极易溶于水，就是在亲水性比较强的乙醇中也难于溶解。淀粉虽然羟基数目多，但分子大大，所以难溶解于水。蛋白质和氨基酸都是酸碱两性化合物，有一定程度的极性，所以能溶于水，不溶于或难溶子有机溶剂。甙类都比其甙元的亲水性强，特别是皂甙由于它们的分子中往往结合有多数糖分子，羟基数目多，能表现出较强的亲水性，而皂甙元则属于亲脂性强的化合物。多数游离的生物碱是亲脂性化合物，与酸结合成盐后，能够离子化，加强了极性，就变为亲水的注质，这些生物碱可称为半极性化合物。所以，生物碱的盐类易溶于水，不溶或难溶于有机溶剂；而多数游离的生物碱不溶或难溶于水，易溶于亲脂性溶剂，一般以在氯仿中溶解度最大。鞣质是多羟基的化台物，为亲水性的物质。油脂、挥发油、蜡、脂溶性色素都是强亲脂性的成分。

总的说来，只要中草药成分的亲水性和亲脂性与溶剂的此项性质相当，就会在其中有较大的溶解度，即所谓“相似相溶”的规律。这是选择适当溶剂自中草药中提取所需要成分的依据之一。

2．溶剂的选择：运用溶剂提取法的关键，是选择适当的溶剂。溶剂选择适当，就可以比较顺利地将需要的成分提取出来。选择溶剂要注意以下三点：①溶剂对有效成分溶解度大，对杂质溶解度小；②溶剂不能与中药的成分起化学变化；③溶剂要经济、易得、使用安全等。

常见的提取溶剂可分为以下三类：

1）水：水是一种强的极性溶剂。中草药中亲水性的成分，如无机盐、糖类、分子不太大的多糖类、鞣质、氨基酸、蛋白质、有机酸盐、生物碱盐及甙类等都能被水溶出。为了增加某些成分的溶解度，也常采用酸水及碱水作为提取溶剂。酸水提取，可使生物碱与酸生成盐类而溶出，碱水提取可使有机酸、黄酮、蒽醌、内酯、香豆素以及酚类成分溶出。但用水提取易酶解甙类成分，且易霉坏变质。某些含果胶、粘液质类成分的中草药，其水提取液常常很难过滤。沸水提取时，中草药中的淀粉可被糊化，而增加过滤的困难。故含淀粉量多的中草药，不宜磨成细粉后加水煎煮。中药传统用的汤剂，多用中药饮片直火煎煮，加温可以增大中药成分的溶解度外，还可能有与其他成分产生“助溶”现象，增加了一些水中溶解度小的、亲脂性强的成分的溶解度。但多数亲脂性成分在沸水中的溶解度是不大的，既使有助溶现象存在，也不容易提取完全。如果应用大量水煎煮，就会增加蒸发浓缩时的困难，且会溶出大量杂质，给进一步分离提纯带来麻烦。中草药水提取液中含有皂甙及粘液质类成分，在减压浓缩时，还会产生大量泡沫，造成浓缩的困难。通常可在蒸馏器上装置一个汽一液分离防溅球加以克服，工业上则常用薄膜浓缩装置。

2）亲水性的有机溶剂：也就是一般所说的与水能混溶的有机溶剂，如乙醇（酒精）、甲醇（木精）、丙酮等，以乙醇最常用。乙醇的溶解性能比较好，对中草药细胞的穿透能力较强。亲水性的成分除蛋白质、粘液质、果胶、淀粉和部分多糖等外，大多能在乙醇中溶解。难溶于水的亲脂性成分，在乙醇中的溶解度也较大。还可以根据被提取物质的性质，采用不同浓度的乙醇进行提取。用乙醇提取比用水量较少，提取时间短，溶解出的水溶性杂质也少。乙醇为有机溶剂，虽易燃，但毒性小，价格便宜，来源方便，有一定设备即可回收反复使用，而且乙醇的提取液不易发霉变质。由于这些原因，用乙醇提取的方法是历来最常用的方法之一。甲醇的性质和乙醇相似，沸点较低（64℃），但有毒性，使用时应注意。

3）亲脂性的有机溶剂：也就是一般所说的与水不能混溶的有机溶剂，如石油醚、苯、氯仿、乙醚、乙酸乙酯、二氯乙烷等。这些溶剂的选择性能强，不能或不容易提出亲水性杂质。但这类溶剂挥发性大，多易燃（氯仿除外），一般有毒，价格较贵，设备要求较高，且它们透入植物组织的能力较弱，往往需要长时间反复提取才能提取完全。如果药材中含有较多的水分，用这类溶剂就很难浸出其有效成分，因此，大量提取中草药原料时，直接应用这类溶剂有一定的局限性。

3．提取方法：用溶剂提取中草药成分，、常用浸渍法、渗漉法、煎煮法、回流提取法及连续回流提取法等。同时，原料的粉碎度、提取时间、提取温度、设备条件等因素也都能影响提取效率，必须加以考虑。

1）浸渍法：浸渍法系将中草药粉末或碎块装人适当的容器中，加入适宜的溶剂（如乙醇、稀醇或水），浸渍药材以溶出其中成分的方法。本法比较简单易行，但浸出率较差，且如用水为溶剂，其提取液易于发霉变质）须注意加入适当的防腐剂。

2）渗漉法：渗漉法是将中草药粉末装在渗漉器中，不断添加新溶剂，使其渗透过药材，自上而下从渗漉器下部流出浸出液的一种浸出方法小当溶剂渗进药粉溶出成分比重加大而向下移动时，上层的溶液或稀浸液便置换其位置，造成良好的浓度差，使扩散能较好地进行，故浸出效果优于浸渍法。但应控制流速，在渗渡过程中随时自药面上补充新溶剂，使药材中有效成分充分浸出为止。或当渗滴液颜色极浅或渗涌液的体积相当于：原药材重的10倍时，便可认为基本上已提取完全。在大量生产中常将收集的稀渗淮液作为另一批新原料的溶剂之用。

3）煎煮法：煎煮法是我国最早使用的传统的浸出方法。所用容器一般为陶器、砂罐或铜制、搪瓷器皿，不宜用铁锅，以免药液变色。直火加热时最好时常搅拌，以免局部药材受热太高，容易焦糊。有蒸汽加热设备的药厂，多采用大反应锅、大铜锅、大木桶，或水泥砌的池子中通入蒸汽加热。还可将数个煎煮器通过管道互相连接，进行连续煎浸。

4）回流提取法：应用有机溶剂加热提取，需采用回流加热装置，以免溶剂挥发损失。小量操作时，可在圆底烧瓶上连接回流冷凝器。瓶内装药材约为容量的％～％，溶剂浸过药材表面约1～2cm。在水浴中加热回流，一般保持沸腾约：小时小放冷过滤，再在药渣中加溶剂，作第二、三次加热回流分别约半小时，或至基本提尽有效成分为止。此法提取效率较冷浸法高，大量生产中多采用连续提取法。

5）动连续提取法：应用挥发性有机溶剂提取中草药有效成分，不论小型实验或大型生产，均以连续提取法为好，而且需用溶剂量较少，提取成分也较完全。实验室常用脂肪提取器或称索氏提取器。连续提取法，一般需数小时才能提取完全。提取成分受热时间较长，遇热不稳定易变化的成分不宜采用此法。

（二）水蒸气蒸馏法：。水蒸气蒸馏法，适用于能随水蒸气蒸馏而不被破坏的中草药成分的提取。此类成分的沸点多在100℃以上，与水不相混溶或仅微溶，且在约100℃时存一定的蒸气压。当与水在一起加热时，其蒸气压和水的蒸气压总和为一个大气压时，液体就开始沸腾，水蒸气将挥发性物质一并带出。例如中草药中的挥发油，某些小分子生物碱一麻黄碱、萧碱、槟榔碱，以及某些小分子的酚性物质。牡丹酚（paeonol）等，都可应用本法提取。有些挥发性成分在水中的溶解度稍大些，常将蒸馏液重新蒸馏，在最先蒸馏出的部分，分出挥发油层，或在蒸馏液水层经盐析法并用低沸点溶剂将成分提取出来。例如玫瑰油、原白头翁素（protoanemonin）等的制备多采用此法。

（三）升华法：固体物质受热直接气化，遇冷后又凝固为固体化合物，称为升华。中草药中有一些成分具有升华的性质，故可利用升华法直接自中草药中提取出来。例如樟木中升华的樟脑（camphor），在《本草纲目》中已有详细的记载，为世界上最早应用升华法制取药材有效成分的记述。茶叶中的咖啡碱在178℃以上就能升华而不被分解。游离羟基蒽醌类成分，一些香豆素类，有机酸类成分，有些也具有升华的性质。例如七叶内酯及苯甲酸等。

升华法虽然简单易行，但中草药炭化后，往往产生挥发性的焦油状物，粘附在升华物上，不易精制除去，其次，升华不完全，产率低，有时还伴随有分解现象。

Chemistry is a very important subject. It is of as great importance as mathematics and physics. However, chemistry is also very difficult to learn. How to study chemistry is a big problem for high school students. However, I have some tips for you high school students, which you may find useful.
Tip number one. Chemistry is a little similar to English. As you all know, English sentences consist of words, and words consist of twenty-six letters and letter combinations. In "You and Me online English course", there are some tips of how to learn the twenty-six letters and the letter combinations, words and sentences. In chemistry, similarly, you should memorize the elemental symbols, chemical formulae and chemical equations. The chemical equations are similar to English sentences and the chemical formulae are similar to words. The elemental symbols are similar to letters. These are the basic things you need to memorize.
Tip number two. You should do the experiments closely. When you do them, you should look at the status of the reactants, the phenomena that happen in the chemical reaction, the conditions of the reaction and the color and state of the resultants . For example, when magnesium burns, it produces a lot of heat and gives white dazzling light, and becomes a white substance called magnesium oxide. Its chemical equation goes like this: 2Mg+O2=2MgO(lit). It is a chemical change because in the change, a new substance has been formed.
Tip number three. You should review after you learned a unit or two of the textbook, or they will become easy to forget. Some knowledge are really confusing for us students, so you should distinguish one piece of knowledge from another.
Tip number four. The fourth tip that I would give you high school students is error correcting. Don't believe that what is in your textbook is always correct. Nope. When I was a high school student, I used a new set of chemistry textbooks. The chemistry textbooks has a lot of errors and some of the important knowledge and chemical equations has been deleted from the book. So some of the chemical equations are nowhere to be found in the book. For example, the chemical reactions of making hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide in the lab, or the oxydizability of nitric acid, have been deleted from the textbook, so I had to look up my old chemistry book, which a lot of people used for going over their lessons in 1977. That is a good idea for you, too. If your textbook has an error, you should correct the error. If the important knowledge has been deleted from the book, you also should add it to the textbook.
If you follow my tips, you will surely learn chemistry well.

Glycine receptor (GlyR)-mediated inhibitory neurotransmitter in the mammalian central nervous system (CNS) reflex activity, regulation of voluntary movement and sensory signal processing plays an important role in [1]. GlyR pentamer of three independent peptides: the two-glycoprotein (48 kD and 58 kD), are known as α and β subunit, and the other for the 93 kD cytoplasmic protein, called "gephyrin". GlyR and the nicotine acetylcholine receptor (nAChR), GABAA receptor (GABAAR) ,5-HT3 receptor (5-HT3R) and other great homology. Together they form a ligand-gated ion channels (LGICs) superfamily. Five LGICs the formation of transmembrane ion channel subunit foramen. On GlyR, the ion channel selective permeability Cl-.

A, GlyR distribution in the CNS

glyR in the spinal cord and medulla oblongata in a high level of expression, and in the midbrain, hypothalamus and thalamus in the lower brain areas are not high-level expression. This distribution pattern of GlyR and Gly in the spinal cord and brain stem as the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in line to play a role. It is interesting to note, GlyR and GABAAR often co-exist in the spinal cord neurons [2], suggesting that Gly and GABA transmitters may be used as a total (cotransmitter), in the spinal cord play a total transfer (cotransmission) role [3,4].

From the adult rat spinal cord GlyR purified by the α1 and β subunits of the different polymer components, roughly in the ratio of α1: β = 3:2. In contrast, there is evidence that the embryos of five GlyR is composed of α2 subunit with the dimer. Α2 in vitro with the reorganization of polymer and the functional characteristics of embryonic GlyR is also very consistent. In addition, the spinal cord in rats found only low levels of α3 mRNA, prompted α3 may be accounted for in the proportion of GlyR smaller. β subunit is not easy to form a separate polymer with GlyR, but effectively with α1, α2 or α3 different polymer combination. On the other hand, even in the absence of β subunit, α1, α2 and α3 form a reorganization can also GlyR.

α1 subunit mRNA distribution and adult spinal cord and brain stem in the 3H-strychnine binding site is similar to. However, it was surprising that the β subunit to the high number of mRNA in the adult CNS in a whole. The existence of high-level brain regions β subunit mRNA and some people difficult to understand, because the β subunit can not form a separate function of GlyR. GlyR subunit intracellular gephyrin more extensive distribution of mRNA in the rat CNS expression in all regions. Although GlyR in adult animals, almost lack of higher brain areas such as, but in the acute separation and primary culture of neonatal rat hippocampal neurons have been observed by the Gly-induced current response. Recently, Flint, etc. [5] reported that during the early development of rat neocortex, non-synaptic release of taurine can activate GlyR area. Embryonic period as a result of taurine can lead to deprivation of cortical dysplasia. That taurine may therefore activate non-synaptic GlyR affected parts of the development of neocortex.

In the sub-cellular level, GlyR to "cluster" approach in the cell surface. It is assumed in the cell body and dendrites of the "cluster" is located on the synaptic connections. In the process of cell culture, gephyrin to the GlyR cluster is necessary, gephyrin can be anchored receptor on the cell cytoskeleton. In addition, recent studies have shown that early in embryonic development, the activation of excitatory GlyR not have inhibitory effects [6,7], GlyR a "cluster" is due to glycine receptor activation caused by voltage-dependent Ca2 + channel openers, and the resulting influx of Ca2 + regulation [7].

Second, GlyR molecular structure

(A) the structure of GlyRα subunit and β subunit each from the 420 and 470 amino acid residues (figure). By hydrophobicity analysis, forecasts GlyR subunit with a long extracellular N-terminal area, four transmembrane domain (referred to as M1-M4) and a home between the M3-M4 loop of the large cells. This is the general model structure LGICs. N-terminal of the GlyR contains at least one potential N-glycosylation sites (such as α1 first 38 residues N), this area is likely to exist two pairs of sulfur chain. Central is the first Cys-138 and Cys-152 (α1 subunit counting), through disulfide bond formation, the ring is at all conservative LGICs; M1 second ring around the district, is Cys-198 and the formation of Cys-209. In the α and β subunit M3 and M4 cells between the inner ring large initial Department, there are some positively charged residues and contains protein kinase phosphorylation sequence.

(B) receptor assembly and expression has been proved to be the impact of several amino acid residues of recombinant α-subunit assembly. First of all, N38A will enable the replacement of Gly-activated currents had disappeared and could not form N38A glyR note that the α-subunit only in the form of assembly glycosylation. Secondly, the Cys-138 and / or Cys-152 mutation of Ser and / or Ala, its chain disulfide solution, the same can not function in the formation of GlyR, that receptor assembly is impeded. Ring to replace other residues can also produce similar results. For example, Ala, or Asn in place of Asp-148 to enable the expression of GlyR blocked. Although replaced by the more conservative D148E produced by wild-type GlyR and GlyR have similar features, but the mutant receptor on the sensitivity of strychnine reduced. In view of this, the first loop of the receptor LGICs assembly is required. The second ring may have the same effect. Because Cys-198 replaced by Ser (C198S) hinder the assembly of GlyR; with a short-chain residues of the replacement ring when Tyr-202 have the same consequences. At the same time as a result of Tyr-202 is also an important ligand binding residues (see below), the latter found to have attention. Strangely enough, when Cys is replaced by Ser (C209S) when, α1 subunit can be assembled in the cell surface, but not strychnine or a combination of non-Gly-activated currents. The function of the second ring will also be discussed below. In addition, the M2 subunit α1 domain to Asn, Gln or Glu alternative edge of cells has hampered the Arg-252 receptor assembly.

Although early in development or in vitro use of recombinant α technologies used to produce polymer with the same adult α / β dimer different pharmacological characteristics similar, but the α and β subunit co-expression can greatly enhance the efficiency of receptor assembly. β subunit may be some with the α-subunit interaction mechanism to influence the assembly of receptors.-------------下面是上面英语的翻译-----------------------------------
甘氨酸受体(GlyR)介导的抑制性神经传递在哺乳动物中枢神经系统(CNS)反射活动、随意运动调节和感觉信号的处理中具有重要作用〔1〕。GlyR五聚体由三个独立的多肽组成：两个糖蛋白(48 kD和58 kD)，分别称为α和β亚单位，另一个为93 kD的细胞质蛋白，叫“gephyrin”。GlyR与尼古丁型乙酰胆碱受体(nAChR)、GABAA受体(GABAAR)、5-HT3受体(5-HT3R)等具有很大的同源性。它们一起形成一个配体门控离子通道（LGICs）超家族。LGICs的五个跨膜亚单位形成离子通道孔区。就GlyR而言，该离子通道选择性地通透Cl-。

一、GlyR在CNS中的分布

glyR在脊髓和延髓中以高水平表达，而在中脑、下丘脑和丘脑中较少，高级脑区则不表达。GlyR的这种分布模式与Gly在脊髓和脑干中作为主要的抑制性神经递质发挥作用是一致的。有趣的是，GlyR和GABAAR常常共存于脊髓神经元中〔2〕，提示Gly和GABA可能作为共递质(cotransmitter)，在脊髓内发挥共传递(cotransmission)作用〔3，4〕。

从成年大鼠脊髓中纯化的GlyR是由α1和β亚单位组成的异聚体，其比例约为α1∶β=3∶2。相反，有证据表明胚胎GlyR是由五个α2亚单位组成的同聚体。体外重组的α2同聚体与胚胎GlyR的功能特性也十分一致。另外，在大鼠脊髓中仅发现低水平的α3 mRNA，提示α3在GlyR中可能占比例较小。β亚单位单独不易形成同聚体GlyR，但能有效地与α1、α2或α3结合形成异聚体。另一方面，即使没有β亚单位，α1、α2和α3也可以形成重组GlyR。

α1亚单位mRNA的分布与成体脊髓和脑干中3H-士的宁结合位点相似。但令人惊奇的是β亚单位mRNA以很高的数量出现在成体整体CNS中。高级脑区存在β亚单位mRNA有些让人难以理解，因为β亚单位单独不能形成有功能的GlyR。GlyR细胞内gephyrin亚单位mRNA的分布更加广泛，在大鼠CNS所有区域都有表达。尽管GlyR在成体动物的高级脑区几乎缺如，但在急性分离的和原代培养的新生大鼠海马神经元上，均已观察到由Gly诱导的电流反应。最近，Flint等〔5〕报道，在大鼠新皮质发育早期，非突触释放的牛磺酸可使该区的GlyR激活。由于胚胎期牛磺酸剥夺能引起皮质发育不全。因此推测牛磺酸可能通过激活非突触部位GlyR影响新皮质的发育。

在亚细胞水平，GlyR以“簇”的方式分布在细胞的表面。据推测出现在胞体和树突上的“簇”位于突触连接点上。在细胞培养过程中，gephyrin对GlyR的簇集是必需的，gephyrin可以将受体锚定于细胞骨架上。此外，最近有研究表明，在胚胎发育早期，激活GlyR产生兴奋性而非抑制性效应〔6，7〕，GlyR的“簇集”受到因激活甘氨酸受体而引起的电压依赖性Ca2+通道开放和由此产生的Ca2+内流的调节〔7〕。

二、GlyR的分子结构

(一)亚单位结构 GlyRα和β亚单位各由420和470氨基酸残基组成(附图)。经疏水性分析，预测GlyR亚单位含一个长的N-末端细胞外区，四个跨膜结构域（称为M1-M4)和一个居M3-M4之间的大的细胞内环。这是所有LGICs结构的普遍模式。GlyR的N-末端含有至少一个潜在的N-糖基化位点(例如α1的第38位残基N)，此区域很可能存在两个双硫链环。第一个环是由Cys-138和Cys-152(α1亚单位记数）通过二硫键形成的，该环在所有LGICs中是保守的；第二个环靠近M1区，是由Cys-198和Cys-209形成的。在α和β亚单位M3和M4之间大的细胞内环起始部，有一些带正电荷的残基并包含蛋白激酶磷酸化序列。

(二)受体组装和表达 业已证明有几个氨基酸残基影响重组α亚单位的组装。首先，N38A替换可使原先Gly激活的电流消失，说明N38A glyR无法形成，即α亚单位只能以糖基化形式组装。其次，将Cys-138或/和Cys-152突变为Ser或/和Ala，使其二硫键解链，同样不能形成有功能的GlyR，推测是阻碍了受体组装。替换环内其它残基也可产生相似的结果。例如，用Ala或Asn代替Asp-148使GlyR表达受阻。尽管较保守地替换成D148E产生的GlyR与野生型GlyR有相似的功能特性，但突变受体对士的宁的敏感性降低。由此看来，第一个环对LGICs受体的组装是必需的。第二个环可能有同样的作用。因为将Cys-198替换为Ser（C198S）阻碍GlyR组装；用一个短链残基置换环内的Tyr-202时也产生同样后果。由于Tyr-202同时还是一个重要的配体结合残基(见下文)，后一发现已引起重视。奇怪的是，当Cys替换为Ser（C209S）时，α1亚单位虽然可以在细胞表面组装，但不能结合士的宁或不产生Gly激活电流。第二个环的功能还将在下文中讨论。此外，在α1亚单位的M2结构域，以Asn、Gln或Glu替代细胞内边缘的Arg-252也防碍受体组装。

尽管在发育早期或在体外运用重组技术产生的α同聚体具有与成体α/β异聚体相近的药理学特性，但是α和β亚单位的共表达可以大大地提高受体组装的效率。β亚单位可能是通过某种与α亚单位的相互作用的机制来影响受体的组装的。

---希望可以符合要求----

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