一篇关于哥特建筑的中英文对照资料（5000字左右，几篇组成也行），还有追分

求一篇关于公司监事制度的中英文对照资料 5000字左右~

数学是必考科目之一，故从初一开始就要认真地学习数学。那么，怎样才能学好数学呢？现介绍几种方法以供参考：

一、课内重视听讲，课后及时复习。

新知识的接受，数学能力的培养主要在课堂上进行，所以要特点重视课内的学习效率，寻求正确的学习方法。上课时要紧跟老师的思路，积极展开思维预测下面的步骤，比较自己的解题思路与教师所讲有哪些不同。特别要抓住基础知识和基本技能的学习，课后要及时复习不留疑点。首先要在做各种习题之前将老师所讲的知识点回忆一遍，正确掌握各类公式的推理过程，庆尽量回忆而不采用不清楚立即翻书之举。认真独立完成作业，勤于思考，从某种意义上讲，应不造成不懂即问的学习作风，对于有些题目由于自己的思路不清，一时难以解出，应让自己冷静下来认真分析题目，尽量自己解决。在每个阶段的学习中要进行整理和归纳总结，把知识的点、线、面结合起来交织成知识网络，纳入自己的知识体系。

二、适当多做题，养成良好的解题习惯。

要想学好数学，多做题目是难免的，熟悉掌握各种题型的解题思路。刚开始要从基础题入手，以课本上的习题为准，反复练习打好基础，再找一些课外的习题，以帮助开拓思路，提高自己的分析、解决能力，掌握一般的解题规律。对于一些易错题，可备有错题集，写出自己的解题思路和正确的解题过程两者一起比较找出自己的错误所在，以便及时更正。在平时要养成良好的解题习惯。让自己的精力高度集中，使大脑兴奋，思维敏捷，能够进入最佳状态，在考试中能运用自如。实践证明：越到关键时候，你所表现的解题习惯与平时练习无异。如果平时解题时随便、粗心、大意等，往往在大考中充分暴露，故在平时养成良好的解题习惯是非常重要的。

三、调整心态，正确对待考试。

首先，应把主要精力放在基础知识、基本技能、基本方法这三个方面上，因为每次考试占绝大部分的也是基础性的题目，而对于那些难题及综合性较强的题目作为调剂，认真思考，尽量让自己理出头绪，做完题后要总结归纳。调整好自己的心态，使自己在任何时候镇静，思路有条不紊，克服浮躁的情绪。特别是对自己要有信心，永远鼓励自己，除了自己，谁也不能把我打倒，要有自己不垮，谁也不能打垮我的自豪感。

在考试前要做好准备，练练常规题，把自己的思路展开，切忌考前去在保证正确率的前提下提高解题速度。对于一些容易的基础题要有十二分把握拿全分；对于一些难题，也要尽量拿分，考试中要学会尝试得分，使自己的水平正常甚至超常发挥。

由此可见，要把数学学好就得找到适合自己的学习方法，了解数学学科的特点，使自己进入数学的广阔天地中去。



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一、 高中数学课的设置


高中数学内容丰富，知识面广泛，将有：《代数》上、下册、《立体几何》和《平面解析几何》四本课本，高一年级学习完《代数》上册和《立体几何》两本书。高二将学习完《代数》下册和《平面解析几何》两本书。一般地，在高一、高二全部学习完高中的所有高中三年的知识内容，高三进行全面复习，高三将有数学“会考”和重要的“高考”。


二、初中数学与高中数学的差异。


1、知识差异。


初中数学知识少、浅、难度容易、知识面笮。高中数学知识广泛，将对初中的数学知识推广和引伸，也是对初中数学知识的完善。如：初中学习的角的概念只是“0—1800”范围内的，但实际当中也有7200和“—300”等角，为此，高中将把角的概念推广到任意角，可表示包括正、负在内的所有大小角。又如：高中要学习《立体几何》，将在三维空间中求一些几何实体的体积和表面积；还将学习“排列组合”知识，以便解决排队方法种数等问题。如：①三个人排成一行，有几种排队方法，（ =6种）；②四人进行乒乓球双打比赛，有几种比赛场次？（答： =3种）高中将学习统计这些排列的数学方法。初中中对一个负数开平方无意义，但在高中规定了i2=-1,就使-1的平方根为±i.即可把数的概念进行推广，使数的概念扩大到复数范围等。这些知识同学们在以后的学习中将逐渐学习到。


2、学习方法的差异。


（1）初中课堂教学量小、知识简单，通过教师课堂教慢的速度，争取让全面同学理解知识点和解题方法，课后老师布置作业，然后通过大量的课堂内、外练习、课外指导达到对知识的反反复复理解，直到学生掌握。而高中数学的学习随着课程开设多（有九们课学生同时学习），每天至少上六节课，自习时间三节课，这样各科学习时间将大大减少，而教师布置课外题量相对初中减少，这样集中数学学习的时间相对比初中少，数学教师将相初中那样监督每个学生的作业和课外练习，就能达到相初中那样把知识让每个学生掌握后再进行新课。


（2）模仿与创新的区别。


初中学生模仿做题，他们模仿老师思维推理教多，而高中模仿做题、思维学生有，但随着知识的难度大和知识面广泛，学生不能全部模仿，即就是学生全部模仿训练做题，也不能开拓学生自我思维能力，学生的数学成绩也只能是一般程度。现在高考数学考察，旨在考察学生能力，避免学生高分低能，避免定势思维，提倡创新思维和培养学生的创造能力培养。初中学生大量地模仿使学生带来了不利的思维定势，对高中学生带来了保守的、僵化的思想，封闭了学生的丰富反对创造精神。如学生在解决：比较a与2a的大小时要不就错、要不就答不全面。大多数学生不会分类讨论。


3、学生自学能力的差异


初中学生自学那能力低，大凡考试中所用的解题方法和数学思想，在初中教师基本上已反复训练，老师把学生要学生自己高度深刻理解的问题，都集中表现在他的耐心的讲解和大量的训练中，而且学生的听课只需要熟记结论就可以做题（不全是），学生不需自学。但高中的知识面广，知识要全部要教师训练完高考中的习题类型是不可能的，只有通过较少的、较典型的一两道例题讲解去融会贯通这一类型习题，如果不自学、不靠大量的阅读理解，将会使学生失去一类型习题的解法。另外，科学在不断的发展，考试在不断的改革，高考也随着全面的改革不断的深入，数学题型的开发在不断的多样化，近年来提出了应用型题、探索型题和开放型题，只有靠学生的自学去深刻理解和创新才能适应现代科学的发展。
其实，自学能力的提高也是一个人生活的需要，他从一个方面也代表了一个人的素养，人的一生只有18---24年时间是有导师的学习，其后半生，最精彩的人生是人在一生学习，靠的自学最终达到了自强。
4、思维习惯上的差异
初中学生由于学习数学知识的范围小，知识层次低，知识面笮，对实际问题的思维受到了局限，就几何来说，我们都接触的是现实生活中三维空间，但初中只学了平面几何，那么就不能对三维空间进行严格的逻辑思维和判断。代数中数的范围只限定在实数中思维，就不能深刻的解决方程根的类型等。高中数学知识的多元化和广泛性，将会使学生全面、细致、深刻、严密的分析和解决问题。也将培养学生高素质思维。提高学生的思维递进性。
5、定量与变量的差异
初中数学中，题目、已知和结论用常数给出的较多，一般地，答案是常数和定量。学生在分析问题时，大多是按定量来分析问题，这样的思维和问题的解决过程，只能片面地、局限地解决问题，在高中数学学习中我们将会大量地、广泛地应用代数的可变性去探索问题的普遍性和特殊性。如：求解一元二次方程时我们采用对方程ax2+bx+c=0 (a≠0)的求解，讨论它是否有根和有根时的所有根的情形，使学生很快的掌握了对所有一元二次方程的解法。另外，在高中学习中我们还会通过对变量的分析，探索出分析、解决问题的思路和解题所用的数学思想。


三、如何学好高中数学
良好的开端是成功的一半，高中数学课即将开始与初中知识有联系，但比初中数学知识系统。高一数学中我们将学习函数，函数是高中数学的重点，它在高中数学中是起着提纲的作用，它融汇在整个高中数学知识中，其中有数学中重要的数学思想方法；如：函数与方程思想、数形结合思想等，它也是高考的重点，近年来，高考压轴题都以函数题为考察方法的。高考题中与函数思想方法有关的习题占整个试题的60%以上。
1、 有良好的学习兴趣
两千多年前孔子说过：“知之者不如好之者，好之者不如乐之者。”意思说，干一件事，知道它，了解它不如爱好它，爱好它不如乐在其中。“好”和“乐”就是愿意学，喜欢学，这就是兴趣。兴趣是最好的老师，有兴趣才能产生爱好，爱好它就要去实践它，达到乐在其中，有兴趣才会形成学习的主动性和积极性。在数学学习中，我们把这种从自发的感性的乐趣出发上升为自觉的理性的“认识”过程，这自然会变为立志学好数学，成为数学学习的成功者。那么如何才能建立好的学习数学兴趣呢？
（1）课前预习，对所学知识产生疑问，产生好奇心。
（2）听课中要配合老师讲课，满足感官的兴奋性。听课中重点解决预习中疑问，把老师课堂的提问、停顿、教具和模型的演示都视为欣赏音乐，及时回答老师课堂提问，培养思考与老师同步性，提高精神，把老师对你的提问的评价，变为鞭策学习的动力。
（3）思考问题注意归纳，挖掘你学习的潜力。
（4）听课中注意老师讲解时的数学思想，多问为什么要这样思考，这样的方法怎样是产生的？
（5）把概念回归自然。所有学科都是从实际问题中产生归纳的，数学概念也回归于现实生活，如角的概念、至交坐标系的产生、极坐标系的产生都是从实际生活中抽象出来的。只有回归现实才能使对概念的理解切实可靠，在应用概念判断、推理时会准确。
2、 建立良好的学习数学习惯。
习惯是经过重复练习而巩固下来的稳重持久的条件反射和自然需要。建立良好的学习数学习惯，会使自己学习感到有序而轻松。高中数学的良好习惯应是：多质疑、勤思考、好动手、重归纳、注意应用。学生在学习数学的过程中，要把教师所传授的知识翻译成为自己的特殊语言，并永久记忆在自己的脑海中。另外还要保证每天有一定的自学时间，以便加宽知识面和培养自己再学习能力。
3、 有意识培养自己的各方面能力
数学能力包括：逻辑推理能力、抽象思维能力、计算能力、空间想象能力和分析解决问题能力共五大能力。这些能力是在不同的数学学习环境中得到培养的。在平时学习中要注意开发不同的学习场所，参与一切有益的学习实践活动，如数学第二课堂、数学竞赛、智力竞赛等活动。平时注意观察，比如，空间想象能力是通过实例净化思维，把空间中的实体高度抽象在大脑中，并在大脑中进行分析推理。其它能力的培养都必须学习、理解、训练、应用中得到发展。特别是，教师为了培养这些能力，会精心设计“智力课”和“智力问题”比如对习题的解答时的一题多解、举一反三的训练归类，应用模型、电脑等多媒体教学等，都是为数学能力的培养开设的好课型，在这些课型中，学生务必要用全身心投入、全方位智力参与，最终达到自己各方面能力的全面发展。
四、其它注意事项
1、注意化归转化思想学习。
人们学习过程就是用掌握的知识去理解、解决未知知识。数学学习过程都是用旧知识引出和解决新问题，当新的知识掌握后再利用它去解决更新知识。初中知识是基础，如果能把新知识用旧知识解答，你就有了化归转化思想了。可见，学习就是不断地化归转化，不断地继承和发展更新旧知识。
2、学会数学教材的数学思想方法。
数学教材是采用蕴含披露的方式将数学思想溶于数学知识体系中，因此，适时对数学思想作出归纳、概括是十分必要的。概括数学思想一般可分为两步进行：一是揭示数学思想内容规律，即将数学对象其具有的属性或关系抽取出来，二是明确数学思想方法知识的联系，抽取解决全体的框架。实施这两步的措施可在课堂的听讲和课外的自学中进行。
课堂学习是数学学习的主战场。课堂中教师通过讲解、分解教材中的数学思想和进行数学技能地训练，使高中学生学习所得到丰富的数学知识，教师组织的科研活动，使教材中的数学概念、定理、原理得到最大程度的理解、挖掘。如初中学习的相反数概念教学中，教师的课堂教学往往有以下理解：①从定义角度求3、-5的相反数，相反数是 的数是_____.②从数轴角度理解：什么样的两点表示数是互为相反数的。（关于原点对称的点）③从绝对值角度理解：绝对值_______的两个数是互为相反数的。④相加为零的两个数互为相反数吗？这些不同角度的教学会开阔学生思维，提高思维品质。望同学们把握好课堂这个学习的主战场。
五、学数学的几个建议。
1、记数学笔记，特别是对概念理解的不同侧面和数学规律，教师为备战高考而加的课外知识。
2、建立数学纠错本。把平时容易出现错误的知识或推理记载下来，以防再犯。争取做到：找错、析错、改错、防错。达到：能从反面入手深入理解正确东西；能由果朔因把错误原因弄个水落石出、以便对症下药；解答问题完整、推理严密。
3、记忆数学规律和数学小结论。
4、与同学建立好关系，争做“小老师”，形成数学学习“互助组”。
5、争做数学课外题，加大自学力度。
6、反复巩固，消灭前学后忘。
7、学会总结归类。可：①从数学思想分类②从解题方法归类③从知识应用上分类
参考资料：http://yangltez.blogchina.com/3894500.html


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高中数学学习方法谈


进入高中以后，往往有不少同学不能适应数学学习，进而影响到学习的积极性，甚至成绩一落千丈。出现这样的情况，原因很多。但主要是由于学生不了解高中数学教学内容特点与自身学习方法有问题等因素所造成的。在此结合高中数学教学内容的特点，谈一下高中数学学习方法，供同学参考。

一、 高中数学与初中数学特点的变化

1、数学语言在抽象程度上突变

初、高中的数学语言有着显著的区别。初中的数学主要是以形象、通俗的语言方式进行表达。而高一数学一下子就触及非常抽象的集合语言、逻辑运算语言、函数语言、图象语言等。

2、思维方法向理性层次跃迁

高一学生产生数学学习障碍的另一个原因是高中数学思维方法与初中阶段大不相同。初中阶段，很多老师为学生将各种题建立了统一的思维模式，如解分式方程分几步，因式分解先看什么，再看什么等。因此，初中学习中习惯于这种机械的，便于操作的定势方式，而高中数学在思维形式上产生了很大的变化，数学语言的抽象化对思维能力提出了高要求。这种能力要求的突变使很多高一新生感到不适应，故而导致成绩下降。

3、知识内容的整体数量剧增

高中数学与初中数学又一个明显的不同是知识内容的“量”上急剧增加了，单位时间内接受知识信息的量与初中相比增加了许多，辅助练习、消化的课时相应地减少了。

4、知识的独立性大

初中知识的系统性是较严谨的，给我们学习带来了很大的方便。因为它便于记忆，又适合于知识的提取和使用。但高中的数学却不同了，它是由几块相对独立的知识拼合而成（如高一有集合，命题、不等式、函数的性质、指数和对数函数、指数和对数方程、三角比、三角函数、数列等），经常是一个知识点刚学得有点入门，马上又有新的知识出现。因此，注意它们内部的小系统和各系统之间的联系成了学习时必须花力气的着力点。

二、如何学好高中数学

1、养成良好的学习数学习惯。

建立良好的学习数学习惯，会使自己学习感到有序而轻松。高中数学的良好习惯应是：多质疑、勤思考、好动手、重归纳、注意应用。学生在学习数学的过程中，要把教师所传授的知识翻译成为自己的特殊语言，并永久记忆在自己的脑海中。良好的学习数学习惯包括课前自学、专心上课、及时复习、独立作业、解决疑难、系统小结和课外学习几个方面。

2、及时了解、掌握常用的数学思想和方法

学好高中数学，需要我们从数学思想与方法高度来掌握它。中学数学学习要重点掌握的的数学思想有以上几个：集合与对应思想，分类讨论思想，数形结合思想，运动思想，转化思想，变换思想。有了数学思想以后，还要掌握具体的方法，比如：换元、待定系数、数学归纳法、分析法、综合法、反证法等等。在具体的方法中，常用的有：观察与实验，联想与类比，比较与分类，分析与综合，归纳与演绎，一般与特殊，有限与无限，抽象与概括等。

解数学题时，也要注意解题思维策略问题，经常要思考：选择什么角度来进入，应遵循什么原则性的东西。高中数学中经常用到的数学思维策略有：以简驭繁、数形结合、进退互用、化生为熟、正难则反、倒顺相还、动静转换、分合相辅等。

3、逐步形成 “以我为主”的学习模式

数学不是靠老师教会的，而是在老师的引导下，靠自己主动的思维活动去获取的。学习数学就要积极主动地参与学习过程，养成实事求是的科学态度，独立思考、勇于探索的创新精神；正确对待学习中的困难和挫折，败不馁，胜不骄，养成积极进取，不屈不挠，耐挫折的优良心理品质；在学习过程中，要遵循认识规律，善于开动脑筋，积极主动去发现问题，注重新旧知识间的内在联系，不满足于现成的思路和结论，经常进行一题多解，一题多变，从多侧面、多角度思考问题，挖掘问题的实质。学习数学一定要讲究“活”，只看书不做题不行，只埋头做题不总结积累也不行。对课本知识既要能钻进去，又要能跳出来，结合自身特点，寻找最佳学习方法。

4、针对自己的学习情况，采取一些具体的措施

² 记数学笔记，特别是对概念理解的不同侧面和数学规律，教师在课堂中

拓展的课外知识。记录下来本章你觉得最有价值的思想方法或例题，以及你还存在的未解决的问题，以便今后将其补上。

² 建立数学纠错本。把平时容易出现错误的知识或推理记载下来，以防再

犯。争取做到：找错、析错、改错、防错。达到：能从反面入手深入理解正确东西；能由果朔因把错误原因弄个水落石出、以便对症下药；解答问题完整、推理严密。

² 熟记一些数学规律和数学小结论，使自己平时的运算技能达到了自动化

或半自动化的熟练程度。

² 经常对知识结构进行梳理，形成板块结构，实行“整体集装”，如表格化，

使知识结构一目了然；经常对习题进行类化，由一例到一类，由一类到多类，由多类到统一；使几类问题归纳于同一知识方法。

² 阅读数学课外书籍与报刊，参加数学学科课外活动与讲座，多做数学课

外题，加大自学力度，拓展自己的知识面。

² 及时复习，强化对基本概念知识体系的理解与记忆，进行适当的反复巩

固，消灭前学后忘。

² 学会从多角度、多层次地进行总结归类。如：①从数学思想分类②从解

题方法归类③从知识应用上分类等，使所学的知识系统化、条理化、专题化、网络化。

² 经常在做题后进行一定的“反思”，思考一下本题所用的基础知识，数学

思想方法是什么，为什么要这样想，是否还有别的想法和解法，本题的分析方法与解法，在解其它问题时，是否也用到过。

² 无论是作业还是测验，都应把准确性放在第一位，通法放在第一位，而

不是一味地去追求速度或技巧，这是学好数学的重要问题。



对新初三学生来说，学好数学，首先要抱着浓厚的兴趣去学习数学，积极展开思维的翅膀，主动地参与教育全过程，充分发挥自己的主观能动性，愉快有效地学数学。

其次要掌握正确的学习方法。锻炼自己学数学的能力，转变学习方式，要改变单纯接受的学习方式，要学会采用接受学习与探究学习、合作学习、体验学习等多样化的方式进行学习，要在教师的指导下逐步学会“提出问题—实验探究—开展讨论—形成新知—应用反思”的学习方法。这样，通过学习方式由单一到多样的转变，我们在学习活动中的自主性、探索性、合作性就能够得到加强，成为学习的主人。

在新学期要上好每一节课，数学课有知识的发生和形成的概念课，有解题思路探索和规律总结的习题课，有数学思想方法提炼和联系实际的复习课。要上好这些课来学会数学知识，掌握学习数学的方法。

概念课

要重视教学过程，要积极体验知识产生、发展的过程，要把知识的来龙去脉搞清楚，认识知识发生的过程，理解公式、定理、法则的推导过程，改变死记硬背的方法，这样我们就能从知识形成、发展过程当中，理解到学会它的乐趣；在解决问题的过程中，体会到成功的喜悦。

习题课

要掌握“听一遍不如看一遍，看一遍不如做一遍，做一遍不如讲一遍，讲一遍不如辩一辩”的诀窍。除了听老师讲，看老师做以外，要自己多做习题，而且要把自己的体会主动、大胆地讲给大家听，遇到问题要和同学、老师辩一辩，坚持真理，改正错误。在听课时要注意老师展示的解题思维过程，要多思考、多探究、多尝试，发现创造性的证法及解法，学会“小题大做”和“大题小做”的解题方法，即对选择题、填空题一类的客观题要认真对待绝不粗心大意，就像对待大题目一样，做到下笔如有神；对综合题这样的大题目不妨把“大”拆“小”，以“退”为“进”，也就是把一个比较复杂的问题，拆成或退为最简单、最原始的问题，把这些小题、简单问题想通、想透，找出规律，然后再来一个飞跃，进一步升华，就能凑成一个大题，即退中求进了。如果有了这种分解、综合的能力，加上有扎实的基本功还有什么题目难得倒我们。

复习课

在数学学习过程中，要有一个清醒的复习意识，逐渐养成良好的复习习惯，从而逐步学会学习。数学复习应是一个反思性学习过程。要反思对所学习的知识、技能有没有达到课程所要求的程度；要反思学习中涉及到了哪些数学思想方法，这些数学思想方法是如何运用的，运用过程中有什么特点；要反思基本问题(包括基本图形、图像等)，典型问题有没有真正弄懂弄通了，平时碰到的问题中有哪些问题可归结为这些基本问题；要反思自己的错误，找出产生错误的原因，订出改正的措施。在新学期大家准备一本数学学习“病例卡”，把平时犯的错误记下来，找出“病因”开出“处方”，并且经常拿出来看看、想想错在哪里，为什么会错，怎么改正，通过你的努力，到中考时你的数学就没有什么“病例”了。并且数学复习应在数学知识的运用过程中进行，通过运用，达到深化理解、发展能力的目的，因此在新的一年要在教师的指导下做一定数量的数学习题，做到举一反三、熟练应用，避免以“练”代“复”的题海战术。

最后，要有意识地培养好自己个人的心理素质，全面系统地进行心理训练，要有决心、信心、恒心，更要有一颗平常心。


希望对你有帮助^^

网球运动是英国发明的，它起源于英国的教堂。

【 点 评 】 公元1194年，沙特尔大教堂的建筑大师提出了新的建筑思想，对十三世纪所有的伟大建筑起到了启发作用。因为没有图库，它的立视图分为三层（应该明示三层间的关系），并且屋顶分为了四个部分，减少了相互间的交互支撑。从建筑的外部来看，通过放弃在十字形耳堂上建造五座塔的原设计方案，使教堂的建筑发生了一个新的变化。
【 点 评 】 位于肯特郡的迪尔城堡是一座著名的沿海防御堡垒建筑群，由亨利八世（Henry VIII）建于公元1539年。该建筑群专为炮兵设计，中央是一个圆柱形的大本营，外部是一圈半圆形的炮塔。整个建筑物外部是一条壕沟，与堡垒融为一体。
【 点 评 】 位于威尼斯的总督宫的正面建于公元1309至1424年，由Giovanni和Bartolomeo Buon设计。总督宫始建于公元9世纪，历经数次重建，于文艺复兴时期完工。它组成威尼斯伟大的城市规划方案的一部分，城市规划经历了连续几个世纪才最后完成。建筑物的正面总长近152米（500英尺），在较低的两层有开阔的拱廊，第三层在16世纪的一场大火后进行了重建，扩建超过了拱廊的高度。建筑物的上层贴有白色或者玫瑰色的大理石、同一华丽的窗户以及东方脊饰的花边似的城齿墙。
【 点 评 】 位于伯克利的基督教科学派第一教堂就好像同许多梅贝克（Maybeck）的作品一样已经被大火烧毁了，他从未获得过美国建筑师协会的金奖。没有其他的建筑能把他富有想象力的建筑天赋表现得如此完美！他对国内建筑设计的贡献是显著的，并且他在建筑教育领域取得的成就也是引人注目的。但是就是空间、结构、颜色和光线立刻获得了世俗的专业评论员的赞美。教堂于1910年设计，当时梅贝克48岁，它是梅贝克最有成效时期设计思想的生动体现。
只有天才和坚定不移的建筑大师才能把通常工厂中使用的材料与实用的建筑处理得如此恰当，与整个建筑和谐地统一起来。
建筑风格：法国哥特式 描述：镀金、镶宝石的内部装饰，加油拱顶减少窗花格。该建筑为路易斯国王而建造
【 点 评 】 国王学院礼拜堂的空旷并不足为奇，从它开放、矩形的内部空间就能够看出。至今，这座狭窄、宏伟和长长的礼拜堂在建筑史上是伟大的建筑之一。该建筑能辐射出光线，其四面墙壁的每一面上约有2/3的区域安装有彩色玻璃，几乎填满了扶壁间的所有空间。玻璃虽然没有中世纪的华美但是明亮，且有透亮或者不透明的窗格衬托。除了西部的窗户于1879年设计之外，玻璃的年代追溯到1517至1547年，且出自德裔佛兰德艺术家之手。
【 点 评 】 罗马式的中殿源自公元1122至1135年，哥特式的高坛始于公元1450至1521年。
【 点 评 】 巴黎圣母院在法国哥特式建筑的发展史上具有开拓性的意义。它高达110英尺，是第一座真正纪念碑规模的大教堂。紧凑的十字形平面、六肋拱穹、高耸的扶壁以及超大型的窗户成为后来法国大教堂的原型。
【 点 评 】 新圣母玛利亚教堂设计于十五世纪五十年代，它的正面使得这座中世纪教堂的外部更加完美。因为它的尺寸互成八度音阶的1:2的比例，人们都把它描述成为一座伟大的文艺复兴时期建筑的典型。在中世纪意大利式建筑外部的大理石面板能产生出犹如马赛克一样的离散色斑效果，而在这里产生了一种比较有韵律的、几何统一的感觉。
【 点 评 】 索尔兹伯里大教堂完全根据一个基本的设计进行建造，它是英国哥特式教堂很少有的典范。教堂的内层明显地划分为及格水平带，广泛使用波白克大理石创造鲜明的色彩搭配。
【 点 评 】 教堂由英王爱德华一世于公元1045年左右开始修建，他扩大了诺曼底人的影响力，巩固了大英帝国的地位。今天，教堂仍然作为崇拜的活动场所。
Gothic Architecture
The term Gothic was first used during the later Renaissance, and as a term of contempt. Says Vasari, "Then arose new architects who after the manner of their barbarous nations erected buildings in that style which we call Gothic", while Evelyn but expresses the mental attitude of his own time when he writes, "The ancient Greek and Roman architecture answered all the perfections required in a faultless and accomplished building" -- but the Goths and Vandals destroyed these and "introduced in their stead a certain fantastical and licentious manner of building: congestions of heavy, dark, melancholy, monkish piles, without any just proportion, use or beauty." For the first time, an attempt was made to destroy an instinctive and, so far as Europe was concerned, an almost universal form of art, and to substitute in its place another built up by artificial rules and premeditated theories; it was necessary, therefore, that the ground should be cleared of a once luxuriant growth that still showed signs of vitality, and to effect this the schools of Vignola, Palladio, and Wren were compelled to throw scorn on the art they were determined to discredit. As ignorant of the true habitat of the style as they were of its nature, the Italians of the Renaissance called it the "maniera Tedesca", and since to them the word Goth implied the perfection of barbarism, it is but natural that they should have applied it to a style they desired to destroy. The style ceased, for the particular type of civilization it expressed had come to an end; but the name remained, and when, early in the nineteenth century, the beginnings of a new epoch brought new apologists, the old title was taken over as the only one available, and since then constant efforts have been made to define it more exactly, to give it a new significance, or to substitute in its place a term more expressive of the idea to be conveyed.

The word itself, in its present application, is repugnant to any sense of exact thought; ethnically, the art so described is immediately Franco-Norman in its origins, and between the Arian Goths, on the one hand, and the Catholic Franks and Normans. on the other, lies a racial, religious, and chronological gulf. With the conquest of Italy and Sicily by Justinian (535-553) "the race and name of Ostrogoths perished for ever" (Bryce, "The Holy Roman Empire", III, 29) five centuries before the beginnings of the art that bears their name. Modern scholarship seeks deeper even than racial tendencies for the root impulses of art in any of its forms, and apart from the desirable correction of an historical anachronism it is felt that medieval art (of which Gothic architecture is but one category), since it owes its existence to influences and tendencies stronger than those of blood, demands a name that shall be exact and significant, and indicative of the more just estimation in which it now is held.

But little success has followed any of the attempts at definition. The effort has produced such varying results as the epithets of Vasari and Evelyn, the nebulous or sentimental paraphrases of the early nineteenth century romanticists, the narrow archeological definitions of De Caumont, and the rigid formalities of the more learned logicians and structural specialists, such as MM. Viollet le Duc, Anthyme St-Paul, and Enlart, and Professor Moore. The only scientific attempt is that of which the first was the originator, the last the most scholarly and exact exponent. Concisely stated, the contention of this school is that

the whole scheme of the building is determined by, and its whole strength is made to reside in a finely organized and frankly confessed framework rather than in walls. This framework, made up of piers, arches and buttresses, is freed from every unnecessary incumbrance of wall and is rendered as light in all its parts as is compatible with strength -- the stability of the building depending not upon inert massiveness, except in the outermost abutment of active parts whose opposing forces neutralize each other and produce a perfect equilibrium. It is thus a system of balanced thrusts in contradistinction to the ancient system of inert stability. Gothic architecture is such a system carried out in a finely artistic spirit (Charles H. Moore, "Development and Character of Gothic Architecture", I, 8).
This is an admirable statement of the fundamental structural element in Gothic architecture, but, carried away by enthusiasm for the crowning achievement of the human intellect in the domain of construction, those who have most clearly demonstrated its pre- eminence have usually fallen into the error of declaring this one quality to be the touchstone of Gothic architecture, minimizing the importance of all æsthetic considerations, and so denying the name of Gothic to everything where the system of balanced thrusts, ribbed vaulting, and concentrated loads did not consistently appear. Even Professor Moore himself says, "Wherever a framework maintained on the principle of thrust and counter-thrust is wanting, we have not Gothic" (Moore, op. cit., I, 8). The result is that all the medieval architects of Western Europe, with the exception of that produced during the space of a century and a half, and chiefly within the limits of the old Royal Domain of France, is denied the title of Gothic. Of the whole body of English architecture produced between 1066 and 1528 it is said, "The English claim to any share in the original development of Gothic, or to the consideration of the pointed architecture of the Island as properly Gothic at all, must be abandoned" (Moore, op. cit., Preface to first ed., 8), and the same is said of the contemporary architecture of Germany, Italy, and Spain. Logically applied this rule would exclude also all the timber-roofed churches and the civil and military structures erected in France contemporaneously with the cathedrals and (though this point is not pressed) even the west fronts of such admittedly Gothic edifices as the cathedrals of Paris, Amiens, and Reims. As one commentator on Gothic architecture has said, "A definition so restricted carries with it its own condemnations" (Francis Bond, "Gothic Architecture in England", I, 10).

A still greater argument against the acceptance of this structural definition lies in the fact that while, as Professor Moore declares, "the Gothic monument, thought wonderful as a structural organism, is even more wonderful as a work of art" (op. cit., V, 190), this great artistic element, which for more than three centuries was predominant throughout the greater part of Western Europe, existed quite independently of the supreme structural system, and varies only in minor details of racial bias and of presentation, whether it is found in France or Normandy, Spain or Italy, Germany, Flanders, or Great Britain -- this, which is in itself the manifestation of the underlying impulses and the actual accomplishments of the era it connotes, is treated as an accessory to a structural evolution, and is left without a name except the perfunctory title of "Pointed", which is even less descriptive than the word Gothic itself.

The structural definition has failed of general acceptance, for the temper of the time is increasingly impatient of materialistic definitions, and there is a demand for broader interpretations that shall take cognizance of underlying impulses rather than of material manifestations. The fact is recognized that around and beyond the structural aspects of Gothic architecture lie other qualities of equal importance and greater comprehensiveness, and, if the word is still to be used in the general sense in which it always has been employed, viz., as denoting the definite architectural expression of certain peoples acting under definite impulses and within definite limitations of time, a completely evolved structural principle cannot be used as the sole test of orthodoxy, if it excludes the great body of work executed within that period, and which in all other respects has complete uniformity and a consistent significance.

It may be said of Gothic architecture that it is an impulse and a tendency rather than a perfectly rounded accomplishment; aesthetically, it never achieved perfection in any given monument, or group of monuments, nor were its possibilities ever fully worked out except in the category of structural science. Here alone, finality was achieved by the cathedral-builders of the Ile-de-France, but this fact cannot give to their work exclusive claim to the name of Gothic. The art of any given time is the expression of certain racial qualifications modified by inheritance, tradition, and environment, and working themselves out under the control of religious and secular impulses. When these elements are sound and vital, combined in the right proportions, and operating for a sufficient length of time, the result is a definite style in some one or more of the arts. Such a style is Gothic architecture, and it is to this style, regarded in its most inclusive aspect, that the term Gothic is applied by general consent, and in this sense the word is used here.

Gothic architecture and Gothic art are the æsthetic expression of that epoch of European history when paganism had been extinguished, the traditions of classical civilization destroyed, the hordes of barbarian invaders beaten back, or Christianized and assimilated; and when the Catholic Church had established itself not only as the sole spiritual power, supreme and almost unquestioned in authority, but also as the arbiter of the destinies of sovereigns and of peoples. During the first five centuries of the Christian Era the Church had been fighting for life, first against a dying imperialism, then against barbarian invasions. The removal of the temporal authority to Constantinople had continued the traditions of civilization where Greek, Roman, and Asiatic elements were fused in a curious alembic one result of which was an architectural style that later, and modified by many peoples, was to serve as the foundation-stone of the Catholic architecture of the West. Here, in the meantime, the condition had become one of complete chaos, but the end of the Dark Ages was at hand, and during the entire period of the sixth century events were occurring which could only have issue in the redemption of the West. The part played in the development of this new civilization by the Order of St. Benedict and by Pope St. Gregory the Great cannot be over estimated: through the former the Catholic Faith became a more living and personal attribute of the people, and began as well to force its way across the frontiers of barbarism, while by its means the long-lost ideals of law and order were in a measure re-established. As for St. Gregory the Great, he may almost be considered the foundation-stone of the new epoch. The redemption of Europe was completed during the four centuries following his death, and largely at the hands of the monks of Cluny and Pope St. Gregory VII (1073-1085), who freed the Church from secular dominion. With the twelfth century were to come the Cistercian reformation, the revivifying and purification of the episcopate and the secular clergy by the canons regular, the development of the great schools founded in the preceding century, the communes, the military orders, and the Crusades; while the thirteenth century, with the aid of Pope Innocent III, Philip Augustus, St. Louis, and the Franciscans and Dominicans, was to raise to the highest point of achievement the spiritual and material potentialities developed in the immediate past.

This is the epoch of Gothic architecture. As we analyse the agencies that together were to make possible a civilization that could blossom only in some pre-eminent art, we find that they fall into certain definite categories. Ethnically the northern blood of the Lombards, Franks, and Norsemen was to furnish the physical vitality of the new epoch. Political the Holy Roman Empire, the Capetian sovereigns of the Franks, and the Dukes of Normandy were to restore that sense of nationality without which creative civilization is impossible, while the papacy, working through the irresistible influence of the monastic orders gave the underlying impulse. Normandy in the eleventh century was simply Cluny in action, and during this period the structural elements in Gothic architecture were brought into being. The twelfth century was that of the Cistercians, Carthusians, and Augustinians, the former infusing into all Europe a religious enthusiasm that clamoured for artistic expression, while by their antagonism to the over-rich art of the elder Benedictines, they turned attention from decoration to plan and form, and construction. The Cluniac and the Cistercian reforms through their own members and the other orders which they brought into being were the mobile and efficient arm of a reforming papacy, and from the day on which St. Benedict promulgated his rule, they became a visible manifestation of law and order. With the thirteenth century, the episcopate and the secular clergy joined in the labour of adequately expressing a united and unquestioned religious faith, and we may say, therefore, that the civilization of the Middle Ages was what the Catholic Faith organized and invincible had made it. We may, therefore, with good reason, substitute for the undescriptive title "Gothic" the name "The Catholic Style" as being exact and reasonably inclusive.

The beginnings of the art that signalized the triumph of Catholic Christianity are to be found in Normandy. Certain elements may be traced back to the Carolingian builders, the Lombards in Italy and the Copts and Syrians of the fourth century, and so to the Greeks of Byzantium. They are but elements however, germs that did not develop until infused with the red blood of the Norsemen and quickened by the spirit of the Cluniac reform. The style developed in Normandy during the eleventh century contained the major part of these elemental norms, which were to be still further fused and co-ordinated by the Franks, raised to final perfection, and transfigured by a spirit which was that of the entire medieval world. Marvellous as was this achievement, that of the Normans was even more remarkable, for in the style they handed on to the Franks was inherent every essential potentiality. At this moment Normandy was the focus of northern vitality and almost, for the moment, the religious centre of Europe. The founding of monasteries was very like a mania and the result a remarkable revival of learning; the Abbeys of Bec, Fécamps, and Jumièges became famous throughout all Europe, drawing to themselves students from every part of the continent; even Cluny herself had in this to take second place. It was a very vigorous and a very widespread civilization, and architectural expression became imperative. Convinced that

she was playing a part and a leading part in the civilization of Europe . . . Normandy perceived and imitated the architectural progress of nations even far removed from her own borders. At this time there was no other country in Europe that for architectural attainment could compare with Lombardy. Therefore it was to Lombardy that the Normans turned for inspiration for their own buildings. They adopted what was vital in the Lombard style, combined this with what they had already learned from their French neighbours, and added besides a large element of their own national character (Arthur Kingsley Porter, "Mediaeval Architecture", VI, 243, 244).

哥特式建筑:

1.科隆主教座堂
科隆主教座堂,是位於德国科隆的一座天主教主教座堂，它是科隆市毫无争议的标志性建筑物。157米高的钟楼使得它成为德国第二（仅次于乌尔姆市的乌尔姆主教座堂）、世界第三高的教堂，另外也是世界上第三大的哥特式教堂（前两位是塞维利亚主教座堂和米兰主教教堂）。它从13世纪中起建，工程时断时续，至1880年才由德皇威廉一世宣告完工，耗时超过600年，直到今日仍然修缮工程不断。艺术史专家认为它完美地结合了所有中世纪哥特式建筑和装饰元素，因此联合国教科文组织于1996年将其列为世界文化遗产（2004年科隆主教座堂被列入濒危世界遗产名录，2006年脱离该名录）。
1880年至1888年间科隆主教座堂曾是世界上最高的建筑。它至今仍是德国最受欢迎的旅游景点：2001年有5百万游客参观了这座教堂，2004年达到了6百万。
科隆主教座堂隶属於天主教科隆总教区，是科隆总主教的主教座堂，主保圣人为圣母玛利亚及圣伯多禄（圣彼得）。
根据考古发现，教堂原址在罗马帝国占领时期是普通民居。从公元4世纪末或5世纪初起，在这个位置上开始建起了小规模的教堂。之后教堂不断扩建和改建，直到873年9月27日老教堂正式落成——今日科隆主教座堂的前身。这座教堂在1248年4月30日的一场火灾中几乎毁坏殆尽。
1164年，神圣罗马帝国皇帝腓特烈一世将原存放于米兰主教教堂的“三王圣龛”（存放东方三博士的遗骨）赠给科隆大主教Rainald von Dassel。由此，各地来科隆朝圣的信徒骤增，原先的老教堂难以承受。1225年开始，建造新教堂的计划提上日程。
1248年8月15日，新教堂在科隆大主教Konrad von Hochstaden的主持下开土动工。建筑为哥特式，由建筑师Gerhard von Rile以法国亚眠的主教座堂为蓝本设计。之后建造工程时断时续，1560年因为资金原因完全停工。于是，未完工的主教座堂统治了科隆的城市轮廓线300多年。
直到19世纪初，随着德意志民族意识的觉醒，作为德国统一象征的科隆主教座堂获得了越来越重要的意义。另外，当时盛行德国的浪漫主义风气使得人们对中世纪重新感兴趣，教堂的最终完工也再次获得机遇。1842年9月2日，教堂在普鲁士国王腓特烈·威廉四世的支持下重新开工。1880年，教堂在开工600多年之后终于按照最初的设计完工。157米高的双塔使得它成为当时世界上最高的建筑。德国皇帝威廉一世于1880年10月15日在科隆主持了盛大的落成庆典，然而庆典仪式由于具有新教背景的德国王室和天主教会之间的矛盾冲突而蒙上了不快的阴影。
科隆主教座堂在第二次世界大战中受到相当程度的损坏，被炮弹击中共约70次。尤其是北塔塔基，在战后的几十年里都依靠临时的砖结构加固才逃脱倒塌的命运。1948年在尚未完全修复的教堂里举行了庆祝开工700周年的仪式。1956年重新对信徒开放。
教堂内部有104个座位，具中世纪晚期风格的唱诗台是德国最大的，它的特别之处在于各有一个预留给教皇和皇帝的座位。祭坛里镀金的三王圣龛装饰精美，由于内部存放了被认为是属于东方三博士的遗骨，这个祭坛因为被认为是西方最重要的祭坛。教堂内的彩绘玻璃也远近闻名。
教堂顶上一共安置了12口钟。最早的是3.4吨重的三王钟，铸造于1418年，安装于1437年（后来三次重新铸造，最近一次于1880年）。之后是重达10吨的"Pretiosa"（当时西方最大的钟）和4.3吨重的"Speciosa"，分别于1448年和1449年安装。而教堂内目前最大的钟是圣彼得钟，重达24吨，直径3.22米，安装于1924年。

Cologne Cathedral (German: Kölner Dom, officially Hohe Domkirche St. Peter und Maria) is the seat of the Archbishop of Cologne, Cardinal Joachim Meisner, and is under the administration of the archdiocese of Cologne. It is renowned as a monument of Christianity, of German Catholicism in particular, of Gothic architecture, and of the faith and perseverance of the people of the city in which it stands. It is dedicated to Saint Peter and the Blessed Virgin Mary.
The cathedral is a World Heritage Site, being one of the best-known architectural monuments in Germany, and Cologne's most famous landmark, described by UNESCO as an "exceptional work of human creative genius".Cologne Cathedral is one of the world's largest churches, being the largest Gothic church in Northern Europe. For four years, 1880-84, it was the tallest structure in the world, until the completion of the Washington Monument. It has the second-tallest church spires, only surpassed by the single spire of Ulm Cathedral, completed ten years later in 1890. Because of its enormous twin spires, it also presents the largest façade of any church in the world.
The choir of Cologne Cathedral, measured between the piers, also holds the distinction of having the largest height to width ratio of any Medieval church, 3.6:1, exceeding even Beauvais Cathedral which has a slightly higher vault.
Construction of the Gothic church began in 1248 and took, with interruptions, until 1880 to complete – a period of over six hundred years. It is 144.5 metres long, 86.5 m wide and its two towers are 157 m tall.
Cologne Cathedral, despite having been left incomplete during the medieval period, eventually became unified as "a masterpiece of exceptional intrinsic value" and "a powerful testimony to the strength and persistence of Christian belief in medieval and modern Europe", as was befitting a worship-place of the Holy Roman Emperor and the traditional shrine of the Three Kings.
When the present Cologne Cathedral was commenced in 1248, the site had been occupied by several previous structures, the earliest of which may have been a grain store, perhaps succeeded by a Roman temple built by Mercurius Augustus. From the 4th century the site was occupied by Christian buildings including a square edifice known as the "oldest cathedral" and commissioned by Maternus, the first Christian bishop of Cologne. A second church, the so-called "Old Cathedral", was completed in 818. This burned down on April 30, 1248.
In 1164, the Archbishop of Cologne, Rainald of Dassel had acquired relics of the Three Kings which had been taken from Milan in Italy by the Holy Roman Emperor, Frederick Barbarossa. The relics had great religious significance and could be counted upon to draw pilgrims from all over Christendom. It was important that they were properly housed. The loss of the old five-aisled cathedral prompted a building program in the new style of Gothic architecture based in particular on the French Cathedral of Amiens.
With the nineteenth century romantic enthusiasm for the Middle Ages and spurred on by the lucky discovery of the original plan for the facade, it was decided, with the commitment of the Prussian Court, to complete the cathedral. It was achieved by civic effort, the Central-Dombauverein, founded in 1842, raised two thirds of the enormous costs (over US$ 1 billion in today's money), while the Prussian state supplied the remaining third.

Work resumed in 1842 to the original design of the surviving medieval plans and drawings, but utilising more modern construction techniques including iron roof girders. The nave was completed and the towers were added. The bells were installed in the 1870s.
The completion of Germany's largest cathedral was celebrated as a national event in 1880, 632 years after construction had begun. The celebration was attended by Emperor Wilhelm I.
The foundation stone was laid on August 15, 1248, by Archbishop Konrad von Hochstaden. The eastern arm was completed under the direction of Master Gerhard, was consecrated in 1322 and sealed off by a temporary wall so it could be in use as the work proceeded. Eighty four misericords in the choir date from this building phase. In the mid 14th century work on the west front commenced under Master Michael. This work halted in 1473 leaving the south tower complete up to the belfry level and crowned with a huge crane which was destined to remain in place, and the landmark of Cologne for 400 years.
Some work proceeded intermittently on the structure of the nave between the west front and the eastern arm but during the 16th century, this ceased.

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矿区18973774723： 哥特式建筑资料(英文版加中文翻译)急啊~ - ？
本莉亚莫： 哥特式包含多种意思,主要有:一、在建筑上的歌特式建筑如大教堂(cathedral),其最大的特色就是高大的梁柱和尖拱形的天花板与结构;二、在文学上歌特式是用以形容那些以黑暗寂寞地点(如荒废城堡)为背景的奇异、神之冒险故事;三...

矿区18973774723： 谁能给我发几篇关于哥特人 或哥特式建筑的英语文章 再加上汉语翻译 谢谢 - ？
本莉亚莫： 你知道什么是典型的哥特式建筑吗 哥特式建筑带着浓重的宗教色彩,这使她超越了单纯的艺术表现,也比中世纪其他的文化成就更让人叹为观止.她有高耸入云的尖塔,棱纹拱顶;她大多是教堂;她的代表作品就是我们熟知的巴黎圣母院…… ...

矿区18973774723： 有没有关于哥特式建筑的信息,要包括(设计者、产生时间、构成、历史),最好有英文版的.？
本莉亚莫： Gothic Architecture Gothic architecture has three distinct characteristics which set it apart from Romanesque; pointed arches, ribbed vault, and flying buttresses. These developments allowed the architects to make the church much larger and brighter....

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矿区18973774723： -- 哥德式建筑的特点;风格? - ？
本莉亚莫： 哥特式建筑是11世纪下半叶起源于法国,13~15世纪流2113行于欧洲的一种建筑风格.主要见于天主教堂,也影响到世俗建筑.哥特式建筑以其高超的技术和5261艺术成就,在建筑史上占有重要地位.哥特式教堂的结构体系由石头的骨架券和...

矿区18973774723： 说说哥特式建筑的风格 ？
本莉亚莫： 哥特式建筑是11世纪下半叶起源于法国,13~15世纪流行于欧洲的一种建筑风格.主要见于天主教堂,也影响到世俗建筑. 哥特式建筑主要由石头的骨架券和飞扶壁组成....

矿区18973774723： 什么是哥特式建筑?什么是哥特式建筑? ？
本莉亚莫： 哥特式建筑是以法国为中心发展起来的. 12世纪至15世纪,法国的城市手工业和商... 那时,教堂 已成为城市公共生活的中心,成为市民大会 堂、公共礼堂,甚至可用作市...

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本莉亚莫： 11世纪下半叶,哥特式建筑首先在法国 兴起.当时法国一些教堂已经出现肋架拱顶 和飞扶壁的雏型.人们普遍认为第一座真正 的哥特式教堂是巴黎郊区的圣丹尼教堂.这 ...

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本莉亚莫： 一座哥特式的教堂建筑沙特尔教堂,是法国哥特式建筑达到高峰期的一座标 志性建筑.沙特尔教堂坐落在法国厄尔一卢瓦尔省省会沙特尔市的山丘上,是法国 著名的天主...