帮忙翻译一下这篇文章,急急!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!

请高手帮忙翻译一下这篇文章,急急!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!~

China's modern history of biological research ideas
Modern biology is not inherent in our cultural heritage, which is introduced from foreign countries to the East and West. Therefore, this study subjects in the course of development of our country, it is necessary to carefully trace the spread of it, take root and grow in all aspects. Its close relations and reality, lessons learned, for today the biological sciences rather reference, the significance is self-evident. Of course the study is also very difficult. Many things in the event, for a variety of complicated relations, but the process did not disclose all information on file, not for judgement and interpretation. In addition, because of what happened Qiejin more difficult to see cause and effect, clarifying the truth and make a reasonable judgement. At the same time, in the course of the study, vulnerable to feelings and emotional waves of Health, described the impact of objectivity. And the relevant parties to the relatives, students may also have to study some human interference. In addition, reviewed the development of the environment, may be complicated by a number of ideological problems. However, despite all the difficulties, or to begin the study. In Gouchen historical facts and clarify the Development of disciplines, restore the historical truth of calm and pragmatic attitude, as much as possible with a comprehensive, systematic, objective and real historical data of past things happened, as far as possible avoid unnecessary side issues and difficult Extricate themselves. In other words, the memory of China's efforts to "things in terms of the letter," the good tradition of historiography, removal "due to heart likes and dislikes, and then Huiyu" bad habit.
China's introduction of modern biology short time, relevant research lacks. However, as China is a country attaches great importance to the history, people have always been concerned about the subjects of the development process and its development experience. In the 1940s, the "science" has been disseminated by the then active in a number of fields biologists write the branch of the state of development of the article. The article for scholars and the public about developments in biology and then popularize knowledge plays an important role. In the 1980's, the number of units to learn anniversary commemoration of the establishment of dozens of opportunities for organizations to write the history of the development of this discipline, such as: China Plant Society (1933) 50th anniversary of the founding of the time, the organization has prepared a "Chinese botanist History "(Science Press, 1994); China physiology (1926) in the 60th anniversary of the founding of the time, the organization prepared by the" History of China Physiology "(Peking Union Medical College Press, 1993). Scientists also have some old work on their own memories to write articles or monographs, such as biochemist Zheng set, Zou Chenglu virologist and noble Yam, physiologist Zhang Xiangtong, Wang Zhijun, and so on. Some concern has always been the history of biological research biologists such as tree entomologist Zou Wen, Zhou Yaohe, plant physiologist Gong Li Liang, Michael Tan Jiazhen, and so on, they have committed to the preparation of the relevant professionals History. Some of the biological sciences departments such as the management of Pan Gao and Xue Wu Chun, also according to their own experiences and related literature to write some information on the biological development of China's history of articles and books.
Modern biology in China's development, but also aroused the concern of some foreign scholars. French scholar-too justification (G. Schneider), since the 1980s has been to China the development of genetics has a special interest in history, has written a monograph in this area; American scholar of Concepción (J. R. Pusey) also The theory of evolution in China spread done many studies. In addition, the U.S. Cornell University in Eagle Rock (K. Adler) had amphibians and reptiles zoology professor at China's development of a comprehensive study done.
In addition, there are a lot of young scholars in doing post-graduate theses, from the biological development of China's modern history of the area chosen topics, such as Chen Shengkun, Cao Yu, Jiang Yuping, Xiong Wei-min, such as by the Science Society of China in modern times The introduction of physiology and molecular biology of development in China, from some specific aspects of the beneficial exploration. Some of the history of science workers also carried out some research work in this area, such as WANG Zi-chun, Cheng Guang-sheng, Fan Hongye, Zhang Jie, asked in the early liberation of our country and the development of the biology of, and so on. In addition, the publication of the biography also many biologists, for the development of the work there are also some important exposition.
Overall, though his predecessors has done some very meaningful work, but a considerable part of these efforts are engaged in biological research and management personnel using amateur time, the situation according to their own professional writing. Most of these works is relatively simple, mainly review the facts. These long series of similar nature of things is to study the information was accumulated very important, but even the collation of historical materials, and its work there still exist many deficiencies. The deeds of the study, scientists are still inadequate. From the research point of view, the lack of historical analysis and less subject to consider the impact between the disciplines of biology and the adjacent infiltration in the study of the social environment impact on the development of biology, has yet to be deepening. There are many people on the field before, the overall research is still inadequate, not fully reflect the history and development of the whole subject which should be summed up experiences and lessons. Some works are purely for the patchwork,错误百出. Not to mention the research work of scientists worldwide in the review, the overall research work in measurement analysis of the literature, and so on. In short, the scope of the study and development of deep-seated problems still not enough, there are a lot of work to be started.
Modern biological research and study the history of modern history, will need to read a lot of relevant information on file, the biologist and the related parties to carry out the necessary interviews, according to detailed and objective historical data to elaborate what the past has happened. In this I have no intention to talk about relevant research methods, but based on past can see, without mentioning some of the original emphasis on the subject but also the development of an important number of issues, in particular the following aspects.
1. Assessment of the work of foreign scholars
During the inspection, the spread of disciplines, the first involving the relevant people and institutions in this regard attention should be paid to a reasonable number of foreigners Review of the work. These people's political inclination and the world as well as research purposes there may be one way or another, but their academic contribution, or should be an objective evaluation. These people are the two categories is the study of China's foreign scholars, and the other is in China's direct knowledge and dissemination of biological theory of scholars. These two aspects of work, less attention to the past. They work for us is the development of modern biology had some influence, such as Britain, France, Russia, Germany and the United States some biologists in the scientific research institutions of China's biological research, for the classification of plants and animals, resources survey For a considerable foundation for the emergence of modern biology is to stimulate and promote the role of Health. In the first category, scholars such as the U.S. representative at Cornell University, Professor Ni Damu (also translated Nidan, J. G. Needham), research works include "China's dragonflies Manual" (Manual ofthe Dragonflies ofChina), including Law Chi, many at Cornell University to study the early Chinese Health
Of Jurists in their subglottic learning; College of Agriculture Dean of the University of California Professor Mel (E.D.Merril1) is similar to the scholars that he had in the Philippines Secretary of the science, botany research has long been engaged in East Asia , The "East Asian botany bibliography" (A Bibliography ofe ~ tem Asiatic Botany, 1938), China's Pei Kam that botanists from his subglottic In addition, such as Harvard University professor Ellen (G. M. Allen) China has long-term study of the beast, published "China and Mongolia, the beast" (e Mammals ofChina andMongolia), and so on. The third category, such as Qi Tianxi (N. G. Gee) 1912, in Soochow University and established the first biological science, and director, one of the founders of China's entomology Mr Fu that is, from his name; Scholars have similar fraternity, the Harvard-Yenching University (A. M. Boring; amphibious reptiles China's one of the founders of Liu Cheng-chiu that is out of her subglottic), Shi De Wei (Albert N. Steward), Ke-li Hu (c.R.Ke1.
1ogg), Wright (s.F.Light), and so on, they are on the biology of early education has been relatively good contribution. They spread in China and the introduction of the biological aspects of work should be given appropriate review.
2 China's early development model of discipline and institutional process
At that time, in this regard to the main biologists inspected the idea of building disciplines and subjects mode of development, and their system of biological disciplines of the efforts.
Early the founders of China's biological disciplines such as physiologist Lin-sheng, zoologist and botanist Law-Hussein cheated, Liu Shen-e are all very entrepreneurial spirit of the well-known scholars, but their fate and academic life of the idea of building Not the same, which reflects the personnel training and the establishment of branches has their own characteristics, but they have excellent performance. For example, from building their own research institutions in the practice, students can see that the countries in which research institutions and schools formed the first to follow the example of the object, such as the United States to study the Law Chi-fu, such as imitation Hussein and the United States Institute for the establishment of Science Society of Westchester Biological Institute at Harvard University's Arnold Arboretum to imitate the establishment of forest Lushan Botanic Garden; scholars in France have tried to France in accordance with the relevant model to the establishment of universities and research institutions. Study the social environment in China at that time appeared in such features, and its subjects in the history of the development of the results, may be very meaningful.
In the disciplines of the system in efforts to establish the academic community is also an important aspect. In this regard the general narrative has many, but his usefulness and effectiveness analysis or deficient. In addition, the introduction of science as the basis of biological terminology and identification of a translation is also very worthy of in-depth study of a problem. Accept the new disciplines, involving a new set of theories and concepts, terminology related to the translation and reunification is a very important aspect. Animals and Plants in China and the whole of biology, the terminology of the Japanese influence is profound, its pros and cons of how to «very worth exploring.
Period of very entrepreneurial biologist with the international academic community to maintain the exchange of academics is able to track the international trend of academic disciplines and an important driving force for rapid progress in the (then paleontology, physiology, anthropology and birds, fish are classified This has been reflected). To achieve such an exchange, the use of foreign language publications published papers is very important, such as "Chinese Journal of Physiology," "China-paleontology," and "Institute of Biological Science Society of China on" the use of foreign languages are a specialized academic papers. But they also noted that the full localization must use their own disciplines for the universal biological knowledge, the only way to make biological sustainable development. Such as "China-paleontology," often foreign-language books translated into Chinese, and "Science" and other publications are generally published a large number of scientific papers and senior Popular Science. Early this attention to the biologists to track international academic developments, and efforts to popularize biological knowledge of both domestic practice is noteworthy.
Discipline in the process of development will inevitably produce some academic thinking of the confrontation. In the 1930s, Hu and Wang Jing-hee had a confrontation on the steps reflected the social reality (they are the original ideology of "trendy" and "tradition" of the difference, is a "trendy" go-getters, is a "Xue Heng" The main force, while they wrote the "independent reviews" in the "New Youth", "relatives" relations).
China has "by the World Bank Zhiyong," the great tradition, but in the nature of the universe and the essence of life in Why, it seems to be some weak. Western modern science-come, we are learning how effective, in addition to classification, the development of the theory of the subjects had what kind of contribution. There are factions, but there are school? «This is also very worthy of in-depth examination.
3 social environment for the development of biological effects
The introduction of modern biological science at a time when China's "poor and weak," the calamity-ridden period. The establishment of the scientific community itself there is a "science to save the country" concept included. On the one hand, the scientific community hopes that the rapid development, the prosperity of the country to become an important tool, on the other hand, it lacks funds to support such a tool. At that time, the development of biology and geology Similarly, a strong pragmatic tendency (boring and the British Chen diverted to illustrate the impact of the socio-economic backwardness, on the theory of the strong and spend more experimental science is the development of A lot of limitations. Also, the National Academy of Peiping by the plant only two microscopes, one of Taiwan or the bad, is enough to note the lack of equipment at that time). On biology, agriculture, forestry services, medical and health was the cause of biologists moment to consider the issue. After all, we want to make a strong country with the desire too urgent. In addition, the traditional social and cultural (by the World Bank Zhiyong) on the impact of this process (the public's understanding of biology, and the impact of this discipline). These topics of science and the choice to carry out the work of
And achievements have all had an impact on. In the course could be considered in general and case studies on the combination.
4 unified scientific planning and identification of the pros and cons of "climbing" the effectiveness of inspection
1949 after the founding of New China, China's restructuring of the science and technology education and scientific research system. This system for our economic backwardness of such a large country, and concentrate the limited human and financial resources, giving priority to the development (some of the continued development) and linked to the national economy closely related to a branch of a prominent role. China's vast number of biologists with the actual national conditions, and following by the World Bank Zhiyong, and explore the great tradition of truth in the development and utilization of biological resources, flora and fauna-prepared, pest and disease control and biological macromolecules, such as protein synthesis and research is made A considerable contribution. However, in practice there are often quick success of the guiding ideology, but also over-emphasized science and technology for politics, the academic exchanges with foreign countries rarely, its negative impact is very serious.
5 political interference in the scientific development of hazards
This aspect of the problem was mainly due to the first half of the 20th century under the previous,后起China as a socialist country in science and technology development in a comprehensive follow the Soviet Union "Big Brother" caused a consequence, of course, have our own reasons. At that time, the ideological influence, to the scientific work of political labels affixed with philosophy and theory instead of scientific conclusions, had a very bad influence. In that period asked, decision-makers formulate a series of extreme leftist line, principles and policies so that biologists can not work properly, some scholars flee abroad. "Anti-Rightist" campaign after the failure to promptly corrected, resulting in the development of the "Cultural Revolution" extreme point, seriously dampened the enthusiasm of large numbers of intellectuals to China's great cause of the biological sciences harm. Has been to implement the reform and opening up in 1978, only to change this situation, in this regard is very serious lessons to be careful summing up.
6 China's development of biological status
In recent years, China's biology is a very rapid progress, but there are many unsatisfactory status quo in place. The most prominent inadequate or lack of innovation. My biology and the development of advanced countries than there are still gaps in biotechnology and genetic engineering, neuroscience, developmental biology, and other cutting-edge fields, our original results still inadequate. Western developed countries still use their technological superiority, low-cost access to China's germplasm resources and high prices to sell their patent. China says economic development and social progress while making a tremendous contribution to, but in biological pharmaceuticals, national health care, reproductive health, biodiversity and germplasm resources protection, external monitoring of biological invasion, a major biological disaster warning, the global Climate warming on the impact of China's biological and countermeasures, and other aspects of our work is far from being to achieve the desired objectives. Where problems arise, the fundamental reason for what is very worthy of our consideration. Perhaps our culture is a more utilitarian focus on the culture, understanding of its natural life or the nature of limited interest. We may also be the introduction of Western science, cognitive science
And it called for the development of the social environment and management philosophy and education there is some bias. Because today, because of institutional reasons, our research work there are still large number of low-level duplication, issues such as lack of basic research, research topics instant success, only concerned about the number of published articles, research can not be concerned about the depth and quality of the papers. This, in turn, and the prevailing academic community as a whole impetuous closely related.
We are continuing to introduce advanced foreign technology and biological science theory, in other words, in the past domestic scholars to face the academic introduction, spread and how to speed up their biological development issues still exist today. Review of the past course of development, no doubt can provide useful lessons.
有的实在不懂。

醒来 ( 寻求事实)
走来走去的来在附近而且敲击你无感觉的对地面。
你为你发现的字，你的声音和你的声音感到遗憾。
哦我认识你没有意指你说的。 但是我无法不感觉像我死。
不想要假装,我在你的梦是无面的, 无名的。 啊 hoo hoo 哇
守夜在而且上面寻求事实。 说我想要它是你。 啊 hoo hoo 哇

我们吐露，像我们是正确地在和旁边尝试了解言外之意。
但愿我们可以找一个告示让我们知道它是时间。
如果我不是我和你不是你, 可以为我们可能地有一个机会二?
不想要假装,我在你的梦是无面的, 无名的。 啊 hoo hoo 哇
守夜在而且上面寻求事实。 说我想要它是你。 啊 hoo hoo 哇

不想要假装,我在你的梦是无面的, 无名的。 啊 hoo hoo 哇
守夜在而且上面寻求事实。 说我想要它是你。 啊 hoo hoo 哇
不想要假装,我在你的梦是无面的, 无名的。 啊 hoo hoo 哇
守夜在而且上面寻求事实。 说我想要它是你。 啊 hoo hoo 哇

Mycoplasma
Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria that lack a cell wall. Because they lack a cell wall, they are unaffected by some antibiotics such as penicillin or other beta-lactam antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. They can be parasitic or saprotrophic. Several species are pathogenic in humans, including M. pneumoniae, which is an important cause of atypical pneumonia and other respiratory disorders, and M. genitalium, which is believed to be involved in pelvic inflammatory diseases. They may cause or contribute to some cancers.
The genus Mycoplasma is one of several genera within the class Mollicutes. Mollicutes are bacteria which have small genomes, lack a cell wall and have a low GC-content (18-40 mol%). There are over 100 recognized species of the genus Mycoplasma. Their genome size ranges from 0.58 - 1.38 megabase-pairs. Mollicutes are parasites or commensals of humans, animals (including insects), and plants; the genus Mycoplasma is by definition restricted to vertebrate hosts. Cholesterol is required for the growth of species of the genus Mycoplasma as well as certain other genera of mollicutes. Their optimum growth temperature is often the temperature of their host if warmbodied (e.g. 37 degrees Celsius in humans) or ambient temperature if the host is unable to regulate its own internal temperature. Analysis of 16S ribosomal RNA sequences as well as gene content strongly suggest that the mollicutes, including the mycoplasmas, are closely related to either the Lactobacillus or the Clostridium branch of the phylogenetic tree (Firmicutes sensu stricto).
Mycoplasmas are often found in research laboratories as contaminants in cell culture. Mycoplasmal cell culture contamination occurs due to contamination from individuals or contaminated cell culture medium ingredients. The Mycoplasma cell is usually smaller than 1 µm and they are therefore difficult to detect with a conventional microscope. Mycoplasmas may induce cellular changes, including chromosome aborations, changes in metabolism and cell growth. Severe mycoplasma infections may destroy a cell line. Detection techniques include PCR, plating on sensitive agar and staining with a DNA stain including DAPI or Hoechst.
The bacteria of the genus Mycoplasma (trivial name: mycoplasmas) and their close relatives are largely characterized by lack of a cell wall. Despite this, the shapes of these cells often conform to one of several possibilities with varying degrees of intricacy. For example, the members of the genus Spiroplasma assume an elongated helical shape without the aid of a rigid structural cell envelope. These cell shapes presumably contribute to the ability of mycoplasmas to thrive in their respective environments. M. pneumoniae cells possess an extension, the so-called 'tip-structure', protruding from the coccoid cell body. This structure is involved in adhesion to host cells, in movement along solid surfaces (gliding motility), and in cell division. M. pneumoniae cells are of small size and pleomorphic, but with a rough shape in longitudinal cross-section resembling that of a round-bottomed flask.
Mycoplasmas are unusual among bacteria in that most require sterols for the stability of their cytoplasmic membrane. Sterols are acquired from the environment, usually as cholesterol from the animal host. Mycoplasmas also generally possess a relatively small genome of 0.58-1.38 megabases, which results in drastically reduced biosynthetic capabilities and explains their dependence on a host. Additionally they use an alternate genetic code where the codon UGA is encoding for the amino acid tryptophan instead of the usual opal stop codon.
In 1898 Nocard and Roux reported the cultivation of the causative agent of contagious bovine pleuropneumonia (CBPP), which was at that time a grave and widespread disease in cattle herds. Today the disease is still endemic in Africa and Southern Europe. The disease is caused by M. mycoides subsp. mycoides SC (small-colony type), and the work of Nocard and Roux represented the first isolation of a mycoplasma species. Cultiviation was, and still is difficult because of the complex growth requirements. These researchers succeeded by inoculating a semi-permeable pouch of sterile medium with pulmonary fluid from an infected animal and depositing this pouch intraperitoneally into a live rabbit. After fifteen to twenty days, the fluid inside of the recovered pouch was opaque, indicating the growth of a microorganism. Opacitiy of the fluid was not seen in the control. This turbid broth could then be used to inoculate a second and third round and subsequently introduced into a healthy animal, causing disease. However, this did not work if the material was heated, indicating a biological agent at work. Uninoculated media in the pouch, after removal from the rabbit, could be used to grow the organism in vitro, demonstrating the possibility of cell-free cultivation and ruling out viral causes, although this was not fully appreciated at the time (Nocard and Roux, 1890). The name Mycoplasma, from the Greek mykes (fungus) and plasma (formed), was proposed in the 1950’s, replacing the term pleuropneumonia-like organisms (PPLO) referring to organisms similar to the causative agent of CBPP (Edward and Freundt, 1956). It was later found that the fungus-like growth pattern of M. mycoides is unique to that species.
This confusion about mycoplasmas and virus would surface again 50 years later when Eaton and colleagues cultured the causative agent of human primary atypical pneumonia (PAP) or 'walking pneumonia.' This agent could be grown in chicken embryos and passed through a filter that excluded normal bacteria. However, it could not be observed by high magnification light microscopy, and it caused a pneumonia that could not be treated with the antimicrobials sulphonamides and penicillin (Eaton, et al., 1945a). Eaton did consider the possibility that the disease was caused by a mycoplasma, but the agent did not grow on the standard PPLO media of the time. These observations led to the conclusion that the causative agent of PAP is a virus. Researchers at that time showed that the cultured agent could induce disease in experimentally infected cotton rats and hamsters. In spite of controversy whether the researchers had truly isolated the causative agent of PAP (based largely on the unusual immunological response of patients with PAP), in retrospect their evidence along with that of colleagues and competitors appears to have been quite conclusive (Marmion, 1990). In the early 1960's, there were reports linking Eaton's Agent to the PPLOs or mycoplasmas, well known then as parasites of cattle and rodents, due to sensitivity to antimicrobial compounds (i.e. organic gold salt) (Marmion and Goodburn, 1961). The ability to grow Eaton's Agent, now known as Mycoplasma pneumoniae, in cell free media allowed an explosion of research into what had overnight become the most medically important mycoplasma and what was to become the most studied mycoplasma.
Recent advances in molecular biology and genomics have brought the genetically simple mycoplasmas, particularly M. pneumoniae and its close relative M. genitalium, to a larger audience. The second published complete bacterial genome sequence was that of M. genitalium, which has one of the smallest genomes of free-living organisms (Fraser, et al., 1995). The M. pneumoniae genome sequence was published soon afterwards and was the first genome sequence determined by primer walking of a cosmid library instead of the whole-genome shotgun method (Himmelerich, et al., 1996). Mycoplasma genomics and proteomics continue in efforts to understand the so-called minimal cell (Hutchison and Montague, 2002), catalog the entire protein content of a cell (Regula, et al., 2000), and generally continue to take advantage of the small genome of these organisms to understand broad biological concepts.
Scientists have also been exploring an association between mycoplasma and cancer. Despite a number of interesting studies, this cancer bacteria association hasn't been clearly established, and has yet to be fully elucidated (Ning and Shou, 2004), (Tsai, et al., 1995).
The medical and agricultural importance of members of the genus Mycoplasma and related genera has led to the extensive cataloging of many of these organisms by culture, serology, and small subunit rRNA gene and whole genome sequencing. A recent focus in the sub-discipline of molecular phylogenetics has both clarified and confused certain aspects of the organization of the class Mollicutes, and while a truce of sorts has been reached, the area is still somewhat of a moving target (Johansson and Pettersson, 2002).
The name mollicutes is derived from the Latin mollis (soft) and cutes (skin), and all of these bacteria do lack a cell wall and the genetic capability to synthesize peptidoglycan. While the trivial name 'mycoplasmas' has commonly denoted all members of this class, this usage is somewhat imprecise and will not be used as such here. Despite the lack of a cell wall, Mycoplasma and relatives have been classified in the phylum Firmicutes consisting of low G+C Gram-positive bacteria such as Clostridium, Lactobacillus, and Streptococcus based on 16S rRNA gene analysis. The cultured members of Mollicutes are currently arranged into four orders: Acholeplasmatales, Anaeroplasmatales, Entomoplasmatales, and Mycoplasmatales. The order Mycoplasmatales contains a single family, Mycoplasmataceae, which contains two genera: Mycoplasma and Ureaplasma. Historically, the description of a bacterium lacking a cell wall was sufficient to classify it to the genus Mycoplasma and as such it is the oldest and largest genus of the class with about half of the class' species (107 validly described) each usually limited to a specific host and with many hosts harboring more than one species, some pathogenic and some commensal. In later studies, many of these species were found to be phylogenetically distributed among at least three separate orders. A limiting criterion for inclusion within the genus Mycoplasma is that the organism have a vertebrate host. In fact, the type species, M. mycoides , along with other significant mycoplasma species like M. capricolum, is evolutionarily more closely related to the genus Spiroplasma in the order Entomoplasmatales than to the other members of the Mycoplasma genus. This and other discrepancies will likely remain unresolved because of the extreme confusion that change could engender among the medical and agricultural communities. The remaining species in the genus Mycoplasma are divided into two non-taxonomic groups, hominis and pneumoniae, based on 16S rRNA gene sequences. The hominis group contains the phylogenetic clusters of M. bovis, M. pulmonis, and M. hominis, among others. The pneumoniae group contains the clusters of M. muris, M. fastidiosum, U. urealyticum, the currently unculturable haemotrophic mollicutes, informally referred to as haemoplasmas (recently transferred from the genera Haemobartonella and Eperythrozoon), and the M. pneumoniae cluster. This cluster contains the species (and the usual or likely host) M. alvi (bovine), M. amphoriforme (human), M. gallisepticum (avian), M. genitalium (human), M. imitans (avian), M. pirum (uncertain/human), M. testudinis (tortoises), and M. pneumoniae (human). Most if not all of these species share some otherwise unique characteristics including an attachment organelle, homologs of the M. pneumoniae cytadherence-accessory proteins, and specialized modifications of the cell-division apparatus.
A detailed analysis of the 16S rRNA genes from the order Mollicutes by Maniloff has given rise to a view of the evolution of these bacteria that includes an estimate of the time-scale for the emergence of some groups or features (Maniloff, 2002). This analysis suggests that about 600 million years ago (MYA), late in the Proterozoic era, Mollicutes branched away from the low G+C Gram-positive ancestor of the streptococci, losing their cell wall. At this time on Earth, molecular oxygen was present in the atmosphere at 1%, and the fossil record shows that multicellular marine animals had recently spread in the Cambrian explosion. One hundred million years later the requirement for sterols in the cytoplasmic membrane evolved along with the change to the alternate genetic code. Also, the ancestor of the genera Spiroplasma and Entomoplasma (primarily plant and insect pathogens) and Mycoplasma emerged at this time and would itself diverge into the Spiroplasma-Entomoplasma and Mycoplasma lineages approximately 100 million years after that. This diversity coincided with the origin of land plants 500 MYA. It appears that the calculated rate of evolution for the Mycoplasma group increased several fold about 190 MYA, soon after the appearance of vertebrates, while the Spiroplasma-Entomoplasma ancestor continued to evolve at the previously shared slower rate until about 100 MYA, when angiosperms and their associated pollinating insects appeared. Then the evolution rate of these bacteria appears to have also increased significantly. This is an attractive hypothesis, but while it tracks the emergence of several of the unusual characteristics of Mycoplasma and related organisms, it does not address the selective pressures driving their evolution, except perhaps the widespread close association of a parasite with a specific host. The advantages of a reduced genome, cell wall-less structure, and alternate genetic code remain murky.

200分之内没人会给你翻译的（机译除外）

?文能？

文章在哪里?

支原体
支原体是一种属的细菌缺乏细胞壁。因为他们缺乏细胞壁，他们不会受到一些抗生素如青霉素或其他β -内酰胺类抗生素这一目标的细胞壁合成。他们可以寄生或saprotrophic 。几个物种在人类致病，包括米，肺炎，这是一个重要原因，非典型肺炎和其他呼吸系统疾病，生殖和文字，这是被认为参与在盆腔炎。他们可能会导致或有助于某些癌症。
属支原体是其中的几个属内部的阶级mollicutes 。 mollicutes是细菌，其中有小的基因组，缺乏细胞壁有一个低的GC -内容（ 18-40 mol ％时） 。有超过100个公认的属种支原体。其基因组大小范围从0.58 -1 .38m egabase-对。 mollicutes是寄生虫或commensals人类，动物（包括昆虫） ，和植物;属支原体是根据定义，仅限于脊椎动物宿主。胆固醇是需要的增长，种支原体，以及某些其他属的mollicutes 。他们的最佳生长温度，往往是温度的东道国，如果warmbodied （如37摄氏度，在人类）或常温如果主机是无法规范其自身的内部温度。分析16核糖体RNA序列，以及基因的内容，强烈建议该mollicutes ，包括支原体，有密切的关系，无论是乳酸菌或梭菌分行的进化树（ firmicutes严格意义上） 。
支原体经常发现在研究实验室作为污染物在细胞培养。支原体细胞培养污染的发生是由于污染的个人或受污染的细胞培养基成分的药物。支原体细胞，通常小于1 μ m和因此，他们难以察觉，与传统的显微镜。支原体可引起细胞的变化，包括染色体aborations的变化，代谢及细胞的生长。严重的支原体感染，可能摧毁一个细胞系。检测技术，包括聚合酶链反应，镀上敏感的琼脂和染色的DNA染色包括dapi或Hoechst的。
细菌属支原体（小事名称：支原体）和他们的近亲，主要特点是缺乏一个细胞壁。尽管这样，形状，这些细胞往往符合一几种可能性与不同程度的复杂性。例如，成员属螺承担一细长螺旋形状没有援助的刚性结构细胞的信封。这些细胞形状假设作出贡献的能力，支原体的蓬勃发展，在各自的环境。米肺炎细胞具有延长，所谓的'秘诀结构' ，伸出由球形细胞体。这个结构是所涉及的粘附在宿主细胞，在运动沿固体表面（滑翔运动） ，并在细胞分裂。米肺炎细胞体积小和多形性，但与一个粗略的形状在纵向截面相似，即1轮-谷底瓶。
支原体是不寻常的细菌之间在这方面最需要甾醇为稳定他们的胞质膜。甾醇是由后天的环境，通常是由于胆固醇从动物宿主。支原体也普遍拥有一个相对较小的基因组0.58-1.38 megabases ，结果在急剧减少的生物合成能力，并解释他们的依赖于东道国。此外，他们使用替代遗传代码的密码子uga是编码氨基酸色氨酸而不是平常的蛋白石停止密码子。
在1898年诺卡尔和空肠Roux报道，培养病原体的牛传染性胸膜肺炎放线杆菌（ cbpp ） ，这是在当时的严重和普遍的疾病在牛群。今天，疾病仍是风土病在非洲和欧洲南部。这种疾病是造成米mycoides亚。 mycoides资深大律师（小殖民地型） ，和工作诺卡尔和空肠Roux代表首次分离的一支原体物种。 cultiviation是，现在仍然是困难的，因为复杂的增长要求。这些研究人员成功地接种一半透水袋无菌中等肺流体从受感染的动物和沉积，这袋腹腔内成为一个活兔。后15至二十天，流体内部的回收袋是不透明的，这表明增长的一个微生物。 opacitiy的流体是没有看到在控制。这肉汤混浊，然后可以用来接种第二和第三轮和随后引入一个健康的动物，造成疾病。然而，这并不工作，如果材料的加热，显示出生物制剂的工作。 uninoculated媒体，在邮袋，取出后从兔，可被用来成长的有机体，在体外，显示的可能性细胞自由种植和排除病毒的原因，虽然这是不充分体会到在时间（诺卡尔和空肠Roux ， 1890年） 。名称支原体，从希腊mykes （真菌）和等离子（形成） ，提出了在1950年的，一词取代传染性胸膜肺炎样的生物体（ pplo ）是指生物体类似病原体的cbpp （何承天和弗罗因特， 1956年） 。它后来被发现，该真菌样生长模式米mycoides是独一无二的物种。
这种混乱约支原体和病毒表面再次五十年后，当伊顿和他的同事培养的病原体的人原发性非典型肺炎（子宫颈抹片）或步行肺炎。这剂可以增加，鸡胚胎和通过过滤器，排除正常的细菌。不过，它不能所应遵守的高倍光镜，它引起了肺炎无法治疗与抗菌药物sulphonamides和青霉素（伊顿，等人， 1945a ） 。伊顿确曾考虑的可能性，即疾病所造成的一支原体，但代理人没有成长，关于标准的pplo媒体的时间。这些意见，导致得出的结论是病原体的子宫颈抹片是一种病毒。研究人员认为，时间显示，培养剂可诱导疾病的实验感染棉花大鼠和仓鼠。尽管如此，争议是否有真正的研究人员分离病原体的子宫颈抹片（主要基于不正常的免疫反应患者的子宫颈抹片） ，在回顾他们的证据，一直与同事和竞争对手似乎已相当定论（ marmion ， 1990年） 。在上世纪60年代初，有报道说，连接伊顿的代理人向pplos或支原体，人所共知，然后作为寄生虫牛和啮齿动物，由于敏感性抗菌化合物（即有机金盐） （ marmion和goodburn ， 1961年） 。能力成长伊顿的代理人，现在被称为肺炎支原体，在细胞自由媒体获准爆炸研究了什么一夜之间成为最重要的医学支原体和什么是成为研究得最多的支原体。
最近的进展，在分子生物学和基因组学研究带来了基因简单的支原体，尤其是米，肺炎和其近亲米生殖，一个更大的观众。第二次公布的细菌的完整基因组序列是分枝杆菌生殖，这是其中一个最小的基因组的自由活的生物体（弗雷泽等人， 1995年） 。该米肺炎基因组序列公布不久，并且是第一的基因序列，确定引走了一个粘粒图书馆，而是整个基因组鸟枪法（ himmelerich ，等人， 1996年） 。支原体基因组学和蛋白质组学继续在努力去理解那些所谓最小的细胞（和记和蒙塔古， 2002年） ，产品目录，整个蛋白质含量的细胞（古拉，等人， 2000年） ，和一般继续利用小基因组中这些生物体的了解广泛的生物学概念。
科学家也一直在探索的一个协会之间的支原体感染和癌症。尽管许多很有意思的研究，这种癌症的细菌协会尚未明确确立，并已尚未得到充分阐述了（宁守和， 2004年） ， （蔡瑞月等人， 1995年） 。
医疗和农业的重要性，成员属支原体及相关属导致了广泛的编目许多这些微生物的文化，血清学，和小亚基rRNA基因和整个基因组测序。近期重点在小组的纪律，分子系统学，既澄清和混乱，某些方面的组织的阶级mollicutes ，而休战的各种已经达成，该地区仍是有点一个移动的目标（约翰森和pettersson ， 2002年） 。
名称mollicutes是来自拉丁美洲树（软）和cutes （皮肤） ，以及所有这些细菌做缺乏细胞壁和遗传的能力，合成肽聚糖。而琐碎的名称'支原体'已普遍标注的所有成员这一阶层，这个用法是有点不确切的，并不会被用来作为，例如在这里。尽管缺乏一个细胞壁，支原体和亲属已被列为在该门firmicutes构成的低中G + C革兰氏阳性菌如梭菌，乳杆菌，链球菌的基础上16S rRNA基因分析。培养成员mollicutes目前正安排分为四个命令： acholeplasmatales ， anaeroplasmatales ， entomoplasmatales ， mycoplasmatales 。该命令mycoplasmatales包含一个单一的家庭， mycoplasmataceae ，其中载有两个属：支原体，溶脲脲。从历史上看，说明细菌缺乏细胞壁是足够的分类，它属支原体，正因如此，它是历史最悠久，规模最大的属类与大约半数的工人阶级的物种（ 107有效描述） ，每个通常只限于特定的主机和许多主机包藏一个以上的物种，有些致病性和一些commensal 。在稍后的研究，许多这些物种被认为phylogenetically分布在至少三个不同的命令。一个限制的标准，列入属支原体是生物体有脊椎动物宿主。事实上，在类型的物种，米mycoides ，连同其他重大支原体物种一样，米capricolum ，是进化关系更为密切属螺在该命令entomoplasmatales比对其他成员的支原体属。这和其他的差异可能会仍然悬而未决因为它的极端混乱，这种改变可能产生之间的医疗和农业社区。其余的物种属支原体分为两个非生物分类群， hominis和肺炎的基础上， 16S rRNA基因序列。该hominis组包含的系统发育群牛米，米肺，和M. hominis ，等等。该肺炎组包含集群的米老鼠，米fastidiosum ，溶脲脲原体，目前unculturable haemotrophic mollicutes ，非正式地称为haemoplasmas （最近转移到属haemobartonella和附红细胞体） ，以及米肺炎集群。这组包含的物种（和一般的或可能的主机）米alvi （牛） ，米amphoriforme （人力） ，米gallisepticum （禽流感） ，米生殖（人力） ，米imitans （禽流感） ，米。 pirum （不确定/人） ，米testudinis （龟） ，和M.肺炎（人力） 。最如果不是所有这些物种分享一些，否则特色，包括附件的细胞器，同系物的米肺炎cytadherence -配件蛋白质，和专门的修改细胞司器具。
详细分析了16 S rRNA基因从秩序mollicutes由马尼洛夫已引起了看法的演变，这些细菌，其中包括一估计的时间，规模，为出现的一些团体或功能（马尼洛夫， 2002年） 。这个分析表明，约6.0亿年前（吴妙丹） ，下旬，在古代的时代， mollicutes支远离低中G + C革兰氏阳性祖先的链球菌，失去细胞壁。在这个时候地球上，分子氧是目前在大气中在1 ％ ，和化石记录表明，多海洋动物，最近蔓延在寒武纪爆炸。一亿年后的规定，甾醇在胞质膜演变随着改变，候补遗传密码。此外，祖先的属螺和entomoplasma （主要是植物和昆虫病原体）及支原体出现在这个时候，并会本身发散到螺- entomoplasma和支原体谱系大约1.0亿年后。这种多样性的符合原产地的土地，植物500妙丹。看来，计算速度演变为支原体组增加了几倍约190妙丹后不久，出现了脊椎动物，而螺- entomoplasma的祖先不断演变，在以前的共同速度，直到约100妙丹，当被子植物和他们的相关的传粉昆虫出现。然后演变率这些细菌似乎也有显着上升。这是一个具吸引力的假说，但它的轨道的同时，出现了几个不寻常的特点，支原体和相关的有机体，它不涉及选择性的压力，驾驶他们的演变，除了或许广泛密切联系的寄生虫与特定的主机。的优势，减少了基因组，细胞壁少的结构，和候补委员的遗传代码仍然不明朗

---

宁夏回族自治区15867065552： 各位,帮忙翻译一下这篇短文,急求!!! - ？
德径卡莫： 珍是一个在美国的16岁高中生.美国少年杂志访问她关于她的生活习惯.珍有很多好习惯.她经常锻练,她每天都会看书.此外,她经常喝果汁和她几乎从不熬夜.不过,她有一些不好的习惯.她经常看电视,每天看两个多小时,而有时她会吃...

宁夏回族自治区15867065552： 古文译文请帮忙翻译一下这篇文章! 凡昔元首,承天景命,善始者实繁,克终者盖寡.岂取之易守之难乎?盖在殷忧,必竭诚以待下;既得志,则纵情以傲物.... - ？
德径卡莫：[答案] 魏征《谏太宗十思疏》原文及译文 原文: 臣闻求木之长者,必固其根本;欲流之远者,必浚其泉源;思国之安者,必积其德义.源不深而望流之远,根不固而求木之长,德不厚而思国之安,臣虽下愚,知其不可,而况于明哲乎?人君当神...

宁夏回族自治区15867065552： 麻烦帮我把这篇文章翻译成英文,急!!!!!!!!!!!!谢谢! - ？
德径卡莫： Yes, you are friendly, also have a lot of friends, very good, sometimes helping others ( help to help ), yes, you really very pretty, but, you are sometimes very capricious, sometimes also will have to pay attention to others, your character I know, so, I feel ...

宁夏回族自治区15867065552： 急! 急! 急! 拜托,谁能帮我把这篇短文翻译一下,谢谢!The Harp Seal is one of nature's most beautiful and appaling creatures . Many years ago it was ... - ？
德径卡莫：[答案] 鞍纹海豹是自然界最美丽、最吸引人(appealing?)的生物之一.多年前它们曾因为自己纯白的毛皮而遭到捕猎.今天,捕猎鞍纹海豹已经是非法行为.鞍纹海豹在夏季的几个月里大批成群迁徙.它们可在潜水时紧闭鼻孔和耳洞,但需...

宁夏回族自治区15867065552： 求学霸帮忙这篇文章怎么翻译 - ？
德径卡莫： 终于帮你看出来了.这个文章还是蛮有名的,全文翻译如下,要采纳哦:从前有一位师父,他到印度去,那时候因为交通不发达,没有飞机,不像现在一样有很多交通工具,所以这位师父就步行去印...

宁夏回族自治区15867065552： 求人把这篇文章翻译成英文!在线等 !!急!!! - ？
德径卡莫： Man: the weather is fine today, I'm going for a walk in the forest.Snake: the weather is very good today,I'm going to sleep in.Man: Hey, I found that there was a snake,I want to hold it up.Snake: don't touch me,I'm bored.Man: I'm going ...

宁夏回族自治区15867065552： 帮我用英语翻译一下这篇文章,急!!!英语考试结束了,我的成绩不是很理想,大部分是因为做题粗心了.比如第三大题的第5小题,题后面写的是问号我... - ？
德径卡莫：[答案] English exams were over, my achievement is not very ideal, mostly because of a careless. As the third question, the first five passages written question is behind the questions I have written statemen...

宁夏回族自治区15867065552： 谁能帮忙把这篇文章翻译成英文 - ？
德径卡莫： Julius is a painter, but a very good painter. He painted the world happy, because he is a very happy person. But one will buy his paintings, so he thought would be some sad...

宁夏回族自治区15867065552： 求英语大神帮忙翻译一下这篇短文 在线等 急急急 感谢!!! - ？
德径卡莫： 我最喜欢的一个衣服店是我们镇上的一个折扣店.里面卖新的和二手衣服,但是质量都很好.所有衣服都挂着供你去看,有童装区,男装区,女装区.如果你看到喜...