types of morphemes:free morpheme and the bound是什么意思啊？
free morpheme and bound morpheme 自由语素和粘着语素
Morphemes can be classified into two types in terms of their capacity of occuring alone.根据能否单独出现，可以将语素分为两类。
free morpheme(自由语素):-------Those morphemes which may occur alone, that is , those which may constitue words by themselves, are free morphemes(能单独出现,也就是能独自成词的,叫做自由语素.)
Free morphemes: morphemes which may constitute words by themselves
bound morpheme(粘着语素): -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- n disclose, cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes.(dogs中的-s, national 中的-al, disclose中的dis-不能单独出现,它们必须跟至少一个其他语素共现,这样的语素叫做粘着语素.)
Bound morphemes: morphemes which can not be used by themselves, but must be combined with other morphemes to form words
root, affix and stem 词根，词缀和词干
（1）root(词根): the base from of a word that cannot further be analyzed without total loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word left when all the affixes are removed. (词根是词的基本形式,不能再作进一步的分析而完全不损失同一性。也就是说，去掉所有的词缀后，词所剩下的部分就是词根。
All words contain a root morpheme.所有的词都包含一个词根语素。
A root is often seen as part of a word; it can never stand by itself although it bears clear, definite meaning ; it must be combined with another root or an affix to form a word.词根，粘着语素的一种，往往被看作是一个单词的一个部分。它本身有清楚，确定的意义，却不能被单独使用，而只能与另外一个词根结合在一起或与另外一个词缀结合在一起才能形成一个单词。
（2）affix(词缀): the collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme (the root or stem).(词缀是一个构词成分的集合,它们只能附加于另一个语素词根或词干上.)
Affixes are limited in number in a language, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position with reference to the root or stem of the word.语言中词缀的数量总是有限的，根据它们跟词根或词干的相对位置，一般可以把词缀分外三小类：前缀，后缀和中缀。
Prefix前缀----prefixes modify the meaning of the stem, but usually do not change the part of speech of the original word. dis-; un-; mis- para-; mini- ; 前缀通常改变原来单词的意义，但不改变其词性。
Exception: be-; en-; em-; Added to adjectives or nouns they turn the words into verbs.
For example: little----belittle; large---enlarge; rich---enrich; body---embody
Suffix后缀:-----suffixes are added to the end of stems; they modify the meaning of the orginal word and in many cases change its part of speech. -ly; -ness; -tion; -ise; 后缀加在词干后面，通常改变原来词的意义，并且大所数情况下改变词性。
Infix中缀: foot/feet; goose/geese ;–oo-; -ee- ;
6.In linguistics, a compound is a lexeme (less precisely, a word) that consists of more than one stem. Compounding occurs when two or more words are joined together to make them one word.
7.
-Free morphemes can function independently as words (e.g. town, dog) and can appear with other lexemes (e.g.town hall, doghouse).
-Bound morphemes appear only as parts of words, always in conjunction with a root and sometimes with other bound morphemes. For example, un- appears only accompanied by other morphemes to form a word. Most bound morphemes in English are affixes, particularly prefixes and suffixes, examples of suffixes are: tion, ation, ible, ing etc.. Bound morphemes that are not affixes are called cranberry morphemes.
Bound morphemes can be further classified as derivational or inflectional.
-Derivational morphemes, when combined with a root, change either the semantic meaning or part of speech of the affected word. For example, in the word happiness, the addition of the bound morpheme -ness to the roothappy changes the word from an adjective (happy) to a noun (happiness). In the word unkind, un- functions as a derivational morpheme, for it inverts the meaning of the word formed by the root kind.
-Inflectional morphemes modify a verb's tense or a noun's number without affecting the word's meaning or class. Examples of applying inflectional morphemes to words are adding -s to the root dog to form dogs and adding -ed to wait to form waited.
8.
- the deep structure of a linguistic expression is a theoretical construct that seeks to unify several related structures. For instance, a passive sentence like (1a) was claimed to have a Deep Structure in which thenoun phrases are in the order of the correspondingactive (1b):(1a) The bear was chased by the lion.
(1b) The lion chased the bear.Similarly, a question such as (2a) was claimed to have a Deep Structure closely resembling that of the corresponding declarative (2b):(2a) Which martini did Harry drink?
(2b) Harry drank that martini.
-Surface structure can be defined as the syntactic form they take as actual sentences. In the other words, it is forms of sentences resulted from modification/ transformation. Consider these sentences:
(1) You close the door.(2) The door is closed by you.(3) Close the door!
9. Micro-linguistics includes phonetics, phonology, morphology, syntax, semantics, and pragmatics.
Macro-linguistics includes sociolinguistics, psycholinguistics, neurolinguistics, stylistics, discourse analysis, computational linguistics, cognitive linguistics, and applied linguistics.
10.
1. Two kinds of theory of meaning
2. Semantic theories
2.1 Propositional semantic theories
2.1.1 The theory of reference
2.1.2 Theories of reference vs. semantic theories
2.1.3 The relationship between content and reference
2.1.4 Character and content, context and circumstance
2.1.5 Possible worlds semantics
2.1.6 Russellian propositions
2.1.7 Fregean propositions
2.2 Non-propositional theories
2.2.1 The Davidsonian program
2.2.2 Chomskyan internalist semantics
3. Foundational theories of meaning
3.1 Mentalist theories
3.1.1 The Gricean program
3.1.2 Meaning, belief, and convention
3.1.3 Mental representation-based theories
3.2 Non-mentalist theories
3.2.1 Causal origin
3.2.2 Truth-maximization and the principle of charity
3.2.3 Regularities in use
3.2.4 Social norms
morpheme： 词素 语素 types of morphemes 语素类型
free morpheme 自由语素 bound morpheme 粘着语素
语素是语言中最小的有意义的单元，根据能否单独出现，可以将语素分为两类：自由语素和黏着语素
free morpheme(自由语素):Those morphemes which may occur alone, that is , those which may constitue words by themselves, are free morphemes(能单独出现,也就是能独自成词的,叫做自由语素.)
bound morpheme(粘着语素): -s in dogs, -al in national, and dis- n disclose, cannot occur alone. They must appear with at least another morpheme, and are called bound morphemes.(dogs中的-s, national 中的-al, disclose中的dis-不能单独出现,它们必须跟至少一个其他语素共现,这样的语素叫做粘着语素.)
希望能帮到楼主~~
词素的种类 分自由词素和粘着词素 我们语言学课上讲的 我晕头转向
词素的种类：自由词素和粘着词素
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