如何制造玻璃 紧急 最好要英语的 实在不行中文也行

如何制造玻璃 紧急 最好要英语的 实在不~

How to make glass?
How to produce glass?

Experience is the teacher of all things.
I love honor, more than I fear death.
If you must break the law ,do It to sieze power, otherwise observe the low.
Don’t rock the boat.
Don’t upset the apple card.
Don’t try to walk before you can crawl.
Don’t wash dirty linen in public.
Early to bed, early to rise makes one healthy, wealthy and wise.
Easy come, easy go.
Enough is enough.
Every man is his own worst enemy.
Failing to plan is planning to fail.
Familiarity breeds contempt.
Finders keepers losers weepers.
Fish and guests smell after three days.
Fortune favors the brave.
A man working on an electric power mower plugs in the plug.
After a storm comes a calm.
All good things come to one who waits.
Appearances are deceptive.
Do not judge a book by its cover.
Ask no questions, hear no lies.
Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.
Distances makes beauty.
It is an equal failing to trust everybody and to trust nobody.
It is the squeaky wheel that gets the grease.
Keep your mouth shut and your ears open.
Kill not the goose that lays golden egg.
Laughter is the best medicine.
Crime does not pay.
Curiosity killed the cat.
Road man have no friends.
Never say die.
It is never too late to learn.
No man can serve two masters.
No man is an island.
No rest for the wicked.
There is no time like the present.
Nothing is certain but death and taxes.
Nothing succeeds like success.
Nothing ventured, nothing gained.
One person’s loss is another’s gain.
One of those days is none of these days.
Opportunity seldom knocks twile.
Out of sight, out of mind.
People who live in glass houses shouldn’t throw stones.
经验是一切事物的老师。
我爱荣誉，比我更害怕死亡。
如果你必须打破的法律，这样做是为了夺取政权，否则观察低。
不要捣乱。
不要打乱了苹果卡。
不要试图走，才能爬。
不要在公共脏衣服洗。
早睡早起，早，起得早一个健康，富有和聪明。
来得容易去得快。
够了。
每个人都是他自己最大的敌人。
未按计划就是计划失败。
熟悉品种的蔑视。
拾得饲养失败者魂弥撒。
鱼和客人的气味后三天。
财富眷顾勇者。
一个人的工作动力的电动割草机的插头插座。
雨过天晴，苦尽甘来。
一切美好的事物来一个谁等待。
外表往往具有欺骗性。
不要根据封面判断一本书。
不问问题，你撒谎。
美在观察者的眼中。
距离让美丽。
这是一个人人平等的不信任和不信任任何人。
这是吱吱作响的轮子得到的油脂。
闭上嘴巴，竖起耳朵。
不杀鹅取金蛋。
笑是最好的良药。
犯罪划不来。
好奇心杀死猫。
路的人没有朋友。
永不言败。
这是永远不会太迟学习。
一个人不能事奉两个主。
没有人是一座孤岛。
恶人没有休息。
有没有像现在。
没有什么是必然的，除了死亡和税收。
没有成功，事事顺利。
不入虎穴，焉得虎子。
一个人的损失是其他人的利益。
那些日子之一是这些天没有。
机会很少敲twile。
眼不见，心不烦。
人谁住在玻璃房子里不应该扔石头。

里面含有玻璃制造的内容。

Glass
I INTRODUCTION

Glass, an amorphous substance made primarily of silica fused at high temperatures with borates or phosphates. Glass is also found in nature, as the volcanic material obsidian and as the enigmatic objects known as tektites (see Tektite). It is neither a solid nor a liquid but exists in a vitreous, or glassy, state in which molecular units have disordered arrangement but sufficient cohesion to produce mechanical rigidity. Glass is cooled to a rigid state without the occurrence of crystallization; heat can reconvert glass to a liquid form. Usually transparent, glass can also be translucent or opaque. Color varies with the ingredients of the batch.

Molten glass is plastic and can be shaped by means of several techniques. When cold, glass can be carved. At low temperatures glass is brittle and breaks with a shell-like fracture on the broken face. Such natural materials as obsidian and tektites (from meteors) have compositions and properties similar to those of synthetic glass.

Glass was first made before 2000 bc and has since served humans in many ways. It has been used to make useful vessels as well as decorative and ornamental objects, including jewelry. Glass also has architectural and industrial applications.

II MATERIALS AND TECHNIQUES

The basic ingredient of glass compositions is silica, derived from sand, flint, or quartz.

A Composition and Properties

Silica can be melted at very high temperatures to form fused silica glass. Because this glass has a high melting point and does not shrink or expand greatly with changing temperatures, it is suitable for laboratory apparatus and for such objects subject to heat shock as telescope mirrors. Glass is a poor conductor of both heat and electricity and therefore useful for electrical and thermal insulation. For most glass, silica is combined with other raw materials in various proportions. Alkali fluxes, commonly the carbonates of sodium or potassium, lower the fusion temperature and viscosity of silica. Limestone or dolomite (calcium and magnesium carbonates) act as stabilizers for the batch. Other ingredients such as lead and borax give to glass certain physical properties.

A1 Water Glass and Soda-Lime Glass

Glass of high soda content can be dissolved in water as a syrupy fluid. Known as water glass, it is used commercially for fireproofing and as a sealant. Most manufactured glass is a soda-lime composition used to make bottles, tableware, lamp bulbs, and window and plate glass.

A2 Lead Glass

The fine-quality table glass known as crystal is made from potassium-silicate formulas that include lead oxide. Lead glass is heavy and has an enhanced capacity to refract light, which makes it suitable for lenses and prisms, as well as for imitation jewels. Because lead absorbs high-energy radiation, lead glasses are used in shields to protect personnel in nuclear installations.

A3 Borosilicate Glass

Borosilicate glass contains borax as a major ingredient, along with silica and alkali. Noted for its durability and resistance to chemical attack and high temperatures, borosilicate glass is widely employed for cooking utensils, laboratory glassware, and chemical process equipment.

A4 Color

Impurities in the raw materials affect the color of glass. For a clear, colorless substance, glassmakers add manganese to counteract the effects of iron traces that produce greens and browns. Glass can be colored by dissolving in it metallic oxides, sulfides, or selenides. Other colorants may be dispersed as microscopic particles.

A5 Miscellaneous Ingredients

Typical glass formulas include broken waste glass of related composition (cullet), which promotes melting and homogenization of the batch. Fining agents such as arsenic or antimony are often added to cause the release of small bubbles during the melting.

A6 Physical Properties

Depending on the composition, some glass will melt at temperatures as low as 500° C (900° F); others melt only at 1650° C (3180° F). Tensile strength, normally between 280 and 560 kg per sq cm (4000 and 8000 lb per sq in), can exceed 7000 kg per sq cm (100,000 lb per sq in) if the glass is specially treated. Specific gravity ranges from 2 to 8, or from less than that of aluminum to more than that of steel. Similarly wide variations occur in optical and electrical properties.

B Mixing and Melting

After careful preparation and measurement, the raw materials are mixed and undergo initial fusion before being subjected to the full heat needed for vitrification. In the past, melting was done in clay pots heated in wood- or coal-burning furnaces. Pots of fireclay, holding from 0.5 to 1.5 metric tons of glass, are still used when relatively small amounts of glass are needed for handworking. In modern glass plants, most glass is melted in large tank furnaces, first introduced in 1872, that can hold more than 1000 metric tons of glass and are heated by gas, oil, or electricity. The glass batch is fed continuously into an opening (doghouse) at one end of the tank, and the melted, refined, and conditioned glass is drawn out the other end. In long forehearths, or holding chambers, the molten glass is brought to the correct working temperature, and the vitreous mass is then delivered to the forming machines.

C Shaping

When working glass in its plastic state, five basic methods are employed to produce an almost limitless variety of shapes: casting, blowing, pressing, drawing, and rolling.

C1 Casting

In this process, known to the ancients, molten glass is simply poured into a mold and allowed to cool and solidify. In modern times centrifugal casting processes have been developed in which the glass is forced against the sides of a rapidly rotating mold. Capable of forming precise, lightweight shapes, centrifugal casting is used for the production of television-tube funnels.

C2 Glassblowing

The revolutionary discovery that glass could be insufflated and expanded to any shape was made in the third quarter of the 1st century bc, in the Middle East along the Phoenician coast. Glassblowing soon spread and became the standard way of shaping glass vessels until the 19th century. The necessary tool is a hollow iron pipe about 1.2 m (about 4 ft) long with a mouthpiece at one end. The glassblower, or gaffer, collects a small amount of molten glass, called a gather, on the end of the blowpipe and rolls it against a paddle or metal plate to shape its exterior (marvering) and to cool it slightly. The gaffer then blows into the pipe, expanding the gather into a bubble, or parison. By constantly reheating at the furnace opening, by blowing and marvering, the gaffer controls the form and thickness. Simple hand tools such as shears, tongs (pucellas), and paddles are used to refine the form, often while the glassblower sits in the special “glassmaker's chair,” one with extended arms to support the blowpipe. Blown glass can also be shaped with molds: Part-size molds pattern the gather, which is then removed and blown to the desired size. Full-size molds into which the gather is entirely blown impart size, shape, and decoration. Additional gathers may be applied and manipulated to form stems, handles, and feet, or they may be trailed on and tooled for decoration. A shaped bubble can be “flashed” with color by dipping it into molten glass of contrasting color. To make cased glass, a gather is placed within, and fused to, one or more layers of differently colored glass. For finish work and fire polishing at the mouth of the furnace, the gather is transferred to a solid iron rod called a pontil, applied opposite the blowpipe, which is then removed. When the pontil is cracked off it leaves a “pontil mark” that may be later ground or polished away.

In 1903 a fully automatic blowing machine was perfected, thereby making mechanical glassblowing possible.

C3 Pressing

Some pressing was involved in the production of ancient cast wares to ensure that the glass had full contact with the mold. Islamic artisans used simple handpresses to form glass weights and seals. European manufacturers rediscovered the technique in the late 18th century, using it to make decanter stoppers and the bases of stemmed tableware. In the 1820s patents were taken out, particularly in the U.S., that led to the development of fully mechanical pressing. In this process, a gather of glass is dropped into a mold, and a plunger then squeezes the glass between itself and the outer mold and forms the final shape. Both the mold and the plunger may be patterned to impart decorative design to the object being made.

C4 Drawing

Molten glass can be drawn directly from the furnace to make tubing, sheets, fibers, and rods of glass that must have a uniform cross section. Tubing is made by drawing out a cylindrical mass of semifluid glass while a jet of air is blown down the center of the cylinder.

C5 Rolling

Sheet glass, and plate glass in particular, was originally produced by pouring molten glass on a flat surface and, with a roller, smoothing it out prior to polishing both its surfaces. Later it came to be made by continuous rolling between double rollers.

D Lampworking

Lampworking consists of the reworking of preformed and annealed glass, generally to produce scientific laboratory equipment and decorative toys and figures. Rods and cylinders are reheated by air-gas or oxygen-gas flames and refashioned by hand or machine.

E Annealing

After being formed, glass objects are annealed to relieve stresses built up within the glass as it cools (see Annealing). In an oven called a lehr, the glass is reheated to a temperature high enough to relieve internal stresses and then slowly cooled to avoid introducing new stresses. Stresses can be added intentionally to impart strength to a glass article. Because glass breaks as a result of tensile stresses that originate across an infinitesimal surface scratch, compressing the surface increases the amount of tensile stress that can be endured before breakage occurs. A method called thermal tempering introduces surface compression by heating the glass almost to the softening point and then cooling it rapidly with an air blast or by plunging it into a liquid bath. The surface hardens quickly; the subsequent contraction of the slower-cooling interior portions of the glass pulls the surface into compression. Surface compressions approaching 2460 kg per sq cm (35,000 lb per sq in) can be obtained in thick pieces by this method. Chemical strengthening methods also have been developed in which, through an ion-exchange process, the composition or structure of the glass surface is altered and surface compression introduced. Strengths exceeding 7000 kg per sq cm (100,000 lb per sq in) can be attained by chemical strengthening.

F Decoration

After annealing, a glass object may be embellished in a number of ways. Some of them are as follows:

In cutting, to produce cut glass, facets, grooves, and depressions are ground into the surface with rotating disks of various materials, sizes, and shapes and a stream of water with an abrasive. The steps are marking the pattern, rough cutting, smoothing, and polishing.

Designs are engraved by means of a diamond point or a metal needle, or with rotating wheels, generally of copper.

In the etching process intaglio decoration is achieved with acid, the results varying from a rough to mat finish.

In sandblasting, fine grains of sand, crushed flint, or powdered iron are projected at high speed onto the glass surface, leaving a design in mat finish.

In cold painting, lacquer colors or oil paints are applied to glass but are not affixed by firing.

In enamel painting, enamel colors are painted and then fused onto the surface in a low-temperature firing.

In gilding, gold leaf, gold paint, or gold dust is applied to glassware and sometimes left unfired; low-temperature firing, however, is necessary for permanency.

III GLASS AS AN ART FORM

Archaeological evidence indicates that glass was first made in the Middle East, sometime in the 3rd millennium bc.

A Ancient Glass

The earliest glass objects were beads; hollow vessels do not occur before about 1500 bc. Asian artisans may have established the glass industry in Egypt, where the first vessels date from the reign (1479-1425 bc) of Thutmose III. Glass production flourished in Egypt and Mesopotamia until about 1200 bc, then virtually ceased for several hundred years. In the 9th century bc, Syria and Mesopotamia emerged as glassmaking centers, and the industry spread throughout the Mediterranean region. In the Hellenistic era, Egypt, because of the glassworks at Alexandria, assumed a leading role in supplying royal courts with luxury glass. It was on the Phoenician coast, however, that the important discovery of glassblowing occurred in the 1st century bc. In the Roman period glassmaking was undertaken in many areas of the empire, from Rome to Cologne.

A1 Early Techniques

Before the invention of the blowpipe, several methods existed for shaping and embellishing objects of colored glass, both translucent and opaque. Some articles were carved from solid blocks of glass. From potters and metalworkers glassmakers adapted casting processes, pouring molten glass into molds to produce inlays, statuettes, and open vessels such as jars and bowls. Preformed rods of glass could be heated and fused together in a mold for a “ribbon” glass. Patterns of great complexity were achieved by a mosaic technique, in which elements, fused in a rod, together made a design in cross section. Slices of such rods could be arranged in a mold to shape a vessel or plaque and then heated to fusion. “Gold band” glasses featured irregular bands of different colored glass, with gold leaf embedded in one translucent band.

The majority of pre-Roman glasswares were fashioned by the core technique. A mixture of clay and dung was fixed to a metal rod and given the internal shape of the desired vessel. It was dipped into a crucible of molten glass or was wound with threads of glass. The object was constantly reheated and smoothed on a flat stone. Threads of different colored glass were trailed on and combed, creating striking feather patterns, as seen on Egyptian glass of the 18th and 19th dynasties. Handles, feet, and the neck were added and the object cooled. The rod was withdrawn and the core material picked out. Only vessels of limited size, such as cosmetic containers and small vases, could be made this way. Later core-formed articles from the 6th century bc closely followed the forms of Greek pottery (see Pottery).

A2 Roman Glass

Glassblowing, a less expensive and time-consuming method of manufacture, spread from Syria to Italy and other parts of the Roman Empire, gradually superseding the old techniques. A new taste in glass styles developed: The earlier manufacturing processes emphasized color and pattern; blowing enhanced the thin, translucent qualities of the material. Also, by the end of the 1st century ad, colorless glass supplanted colored glass as the most fashionable sort. Glassblowing made large-scale production possible and changed the status of glassware to an everyday material, used for windows, drinking vessels, and containers of all kinds.

The structure of the empire doubtless fostered the extraordinary developments in glassmaking that occurred in this period. Most of the known decorative techniques were invented by artisans of the Roman era. Blown glasswares were patterned in part and full-size molds. Such molds enabled novelty items such as head-shaped flasks to be produced in quantity. A delicately patterned ewer (1st century ad) in the Corning Museum of Glass, Corning, New York, is one of a remarkable group of mold-blown objects that bear the names of their makers. Some Roman glass has elaborately threaded and tooled decoration. Glasswares could be painted with religious and historical scenes, or could feature designs in gold leaf pressed between two layers of clear glass. Ancient glassmakers adapted lapidary skills to make lathe-cut, carved, and engraved glass of considerable beauty. In cameo glass, layers of different colored glass were fused together and then carved so as to leave contrasting motifs in relief. Best known of Roman cameo glass is the Portland Vase (1st century ad, British Museum, London), which depicts the myth of Peleus and Thetis. Delicate effects were achieved in the diatreta, or caged cups, in which great portions of the outer surface were cut away, leaving an intricate openwork frame that appears to stand almost free of the vessel within. The famous Lycurgus Cup (4th century ad, British Museum) epitomizes this practice.

B Western Glass

The manufacture of household glass suffered a general decline in the West with the fall of the Roman Empire.

B1 Medieval Glass

Under Frankish influence glassmakers in northern Europe and Britain continued to produce utilitarian vessels, some of new, robust forms. The decoration of these objects was limited to simple molded patterns, threading, and applied ornaments such as prunts (blobs of glass). Mostly green in color, the glass was at first a soda-glass composition made with ashes of marine plants imported from the Mediterranean, as they had been during Roman times. By the late Middle Ages, however, soda was no longer available, and northern glassmakers turned to the wood ash from their own wood-fired furnaces as a flux, for a potash-lime glass. Because the glasshouses were situated in the forests that provided fuel and ash, the glass made was called forest glass, waldglas. Common glass in the waldglas style continued to be made in the lesser European factories until modern times.

The glory of Western glassmaking in the medieval period, through patronage of the church, was mosaic glass in Mediterranean Europe and stained-glass windows in the north (see Mosaics; Stained Glass). Mosaics were made of small glass cubes, or tesserae, embedded in cement. The tesserae, cut from solid cakes of glass, could be extremely elaborate, with gold and silver lead inlaid. Little is known of the production of mosaic glass before the 14th century.

Glass windows in churches are mentioned in documents as early as the 6th century, but the earliest extant examples date from the 11th century. The finest windows are considered those from the 13th and 14th centuries, primarily in France and England. Glasshouses in Lorraine and Normandy (Normandie) may have provided much of the flat glass for medieval cathedral windows. The glass was colored, or flashed with color, and then cut into the shapes required by the design. Details were painted into the glass, often with a brownish enamel. The pieces were fitted into lead strips and set in an iron framework. The art declined in the late Renaissance but was revived in the 19th century.

B2 Renaissance to the 18th Century

Although glassmaking was practiced in Venice from the 10th century on, the earliest known Venetian glassware dates from the 15th century. Concentrated on the island of Murano, the Venetian industry dominated the European market until 1700. The major contribution of the Venetians was the development of a highly refined, hard-soda glass of great ductility. Colorless and highly transparent, the glass resembled rock crystal and was known as cristallo.

The first cristallo wares were simple forms, often embellished with jewel-like enamel designs. Objects were also blown of colored and opaque glass. By the late 16th century, forms became lighter and more delicate. The blowers exploited the workable nature of their material to produce fanciful tours de force. A type of filigree glass was developed in Venice and widely imitated. With lacelike effect, opaque white threads were incorporat

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涟源市19520647500： 玻璃是怎么制造出来的? - ？
暴云阿娜： 1.玻璃的制造过程: 沙子,主要成分,石英(SiO2玻璃是一种奇特的物质,主要成份是石英砂, 其制造过程是石英砂配合其他化学原料在高温(摄氏1300度)烧制后冷却而成的结晶体,具有质硬、抗磨损,高透光率及抗腐特性,其广泛用途已...

涟源市19520647500： 玻璃是怎样制成的? - ？
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涟源市19520647500： 玻璃是怎么制造的?制造过程是怎样的? - ？
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涟源市19520647500： 玻璃如何制成? - ？
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涟源市19520647500： 你想发明怎样的玻璃?用你喜欢的方式告诉大家. - ？
暴云阿娜： 1. 请你试着做一回小发明家,把你想发明的玻璃用你喜欢的方式写出来一、影视玻璃 周末做完作业,是不是很想看看电视呢?哈哈哈!“影视玻璃”能满足你的欲望!它能够接受千万种影视,不用下载、不用花钱、不用用电,就能看到精彩的...

涟源市19520647500： 玻璃是怎么制出来的?？
暴云阿娜： 玻璃可以分为普通玻璃和钢化玻璃. 制造普通玻璃的主要原料是纯碱、石灰石、石英. 工艺流程是粉碎后放入玻璃窑中加强热. 原料会发生复杂的化学变化. 钢化玻璃是普通玻璃烧软后用冷风急吹. 其机械强度是普通玻璃的4到6倍,抗震、不易破碎.一旦破碎也不会伤人.

涟源市19520647500： 玻璃是怎样制作出来的 - ？
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涟源市19520647500： 玻璃怎么制造的? - ？
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涟源市19520647500： 玻璃如何制造? - ？
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