What are the differences between American romanticism and British romanticism?
romanticism
American Romanticism
The romantic period in Britain runs from 1790 until 1830. In America the Romantic period runs from about 1800 until 1860. So we can see that the Romantic Movement in America began a few years after it’s European cousin and continues for a much longer period after.
Examples of European Writers; Wordsworth, Blake, Coleridge, Shelley, Keats, Byron, Goethe, Schelling. Important American Romantic Writers:
Washington Irving
James Fenimoore Cooper
Henry Wadsworth Longfellow
Ralph Waldo Emerson
Henry David Thoreau
Herman Melville
Nathaniel Hawthorne
Walt Whitman
Edgar Allen Poe
European and especially British romanticism was a big influence on American writers. The important influences to remember are-
Gothic- gothic writers such as Ann Radcliffe, who wrote such works as The Mysteries of Udolfo, and The Italian, Matthew Lewis and, the tales of E.T.A. Hoffman all were influential. Gothic themes include solitude, ghosts, the natural world, darkness, death, doubling of characters and the devil.
Sir Walter Scott- his border tales, where he writes of Scotland in a way that describes it as a wilderness was a big influence on James Fenimore Cooper, who wrote of American wilderness. The book says “Scott was, in a way, responsible for the romantic description of landscape in American literature”. (41).
Oriental Romances- these were an influence on the attempt by American Romanticists to develop a literature that dealt with American Indians, as writers like Longfellow, Cooper and Freneau all tried to do. The important texts here were Byron’s tales such as Manfred, The Corsair and Lara, all of which dealt thematically with people of different cultures (in this case Muslims in the middle East), and these were adapted by the American writers.
Wordsworth and Coleridge- firstly because of Lyrical Ballads, which was one of the very first “democratic” books of poetry- it wrote in very ordinary language of the concerns of common people, without using poetic artifice. In a nation such as America, this was very important, as it matched what writers were trying to do in a land that was seen by Americans as totally democratic and egalitarian: as Crevecouer says “We are the most perfect society now existing in the world. Here man is as free as he ought to be; nor is this pleasing equality so transient as others are.” (39). Stylistically the book was also important in that it used traditional ballad forms which American writers adopted for their own ends- eg Longfellow, give examples on p170+. Secondly, because of the reverence that these poets felt for nature. Both Coleridge and Wordsworth found that there was holiness present in Nature that was beneficial to the spirit of man- quote here....??????? This proved to be a big influence on the New England Transcendentalists, who we shall study in the next class, who combined Romantic and Puritan attitudes towards nature, and also they were a big influence on Walt Whitman.
Politics. All of the important English Romantic poets held very radical, democratic ideas as to how society should be governed. They all disliked monarchy, and social privilege, and believed that ordinary men and women should have more of an influence on the way that government was run. Since Americans were so proud of their own country being a democracy and a republic (no king) this theme too found a ready audience in America. English Romantics were all influenced by the French revolution, which they saw as a model way of governing society, and this was reflected in America, in writers such as Thomas Paine.
Interest in folk culture. The German writers, the Brothers Grimm, and Hoffman drew on folk tales and stories in their work- as Washington Irving does in his Sketch Book stories.
Differences.
Yet we cannot say that American Romanticism was a mere copy of European Romanticism. There were a number off factors that made it unique to the country.
Newness. For Americans in the early 19th century, their country and their landscape was an entirely new one. Unlike in Europe, where landscape always carried with it overtones of history – cf. “Tintern Abbey”- America seemed to be an entirely fresh and new land, one that did not have lots of traces of continuous human habitation on it. America was on the whole a wilderness, undiscovered and unspoiled. The trees and wildlife were totally different. So there were no nightingales or skylarks, but different birds, and trees that in Europe carried a symbolic power- such as the oak for wisdom, or the yew tree for age- did not exist here. The newness of the whole place meant that even fairly ordinary, day-to-day things were very interesting, and lots of American writers wrote about ordinary events in a way that made them fresh and exciting. Irving wrote of the Hudson Valley, William Cullen Bryant wrote of the wild west as did Cooper. On the other hand, some writers felt that this newness also meant an absence of history. Washington Irving was attracted to Europe because he felt that it had history- on page 54 – “Europe held forth the charms of storied and poetical associations...the accumulated treasures of ages.” Etc....
Puritanism. Although in the early nineteenth century, America was a significantly less religious society than it had been 100 years before, Puritanism remained a strong influence. The public opinion was still overwhelmingly Puritan, and this meant that American Romanticism was more Puritan than its European counterpart. This happened in two ways. Firstly American writers were often very didactic- they did not hesitate to moralize about the people they were writing about. Washington Irving takes a moralistic tone towards his characters, though he is also quite kind and charitable towards their faults. The other result of Puritanism was that certain topics remained off limits- specifically sex. Romanticism in England had often engaged with this topic- The Monk talks of fetishism and incest, Coleridge’s “Christabel” talks of a lesbian relationship, Shelley was a great believer in free love (“Epipsychidion”) and Byron based his public persona in a large part on his attractiveness to women. In America, authors were more reticent. The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne talks of adultery, but only in terms of its effects on people, but not of the act itself. Edgar Allen Poe, though very graphic in lots of ways was also very prudish when it came to sex and love.
The ideals of Americans were also different. They thought of America as a new Garden of Eden, and believed strongly in individualism and equality, to the extent that they saw themselves as a new kind of man- a pioneer. This pioneering spirit was different from European Romanticism, where man used nature as a retreat, rather than something to be explored. Later Romantic writers, such as Emerson, in his “The American Scholar” and Whitman gave expression to this new kind of man.
Optimism. I spoke last week of the optimistic character of the Puritans, and the idea of optimism continues throughout American Romanticism. European Romantics were on the whole a pessimistic bunch, who wrote a lot about the negative states of feeling: Shelley’s “Dejection: An Ode”, Goethe’s Sorrows of Young Werther, and Keats’ Ode to Melancholy. American Romantics did not dwell on the bad parts of human feeling; rather they concentrated on the good emotions- joy, love, happiness etc.
There were also other differences between American and European Romanticism.
Childhood. “The child is the father to the man” said Wordsworth. The idea of childhood as the central defining factor in a person’s life was central to the European Romantic imagination, but American romanticism did not place such a great an emphasis on it.
Industry. The Industrial/bourgeoisie revolution took place in England from 1750 onwards. The new kind of society it built up- where some people got very rich of the work of others, the filthy living conditions, inhuman working conditions, that made men seem scarcely human, etc... made the city and the modern world something that Romantic poets in Europe flee from- eg. Coleridge, “This Lime-tree Bower, my Prison” or Keats’ “To One who has been Long in the City Pent”. In America on the other hand, the attitude was different. America was becoming very wealthy very quickly, and this growing economic confidence, coupled with a growing sense of political confidence, meant that as a nation American writers were less concerned with the problems of industrialization and money.
Problems of American Romanticism
Society. Although they referred to equality and democracy as founding aspects of their identity, American Romanticists were often less committed to attacking the social problems of the day, such as slavery and the question of what to do with American Indians.
Derivative. Lots of American poets copied English ones, quite obviously. The New England Poets, Longfellow, William Bryant, John Whittier and Oliver Wendell Holmes, all copied English authors , such as Cowper, Dryden and Pope, who were, and are, not popular even in England. So the poetry can sound very dated to modern ears, as often it was quite clearly aping the past masters.
美国和英国的政府系统之间的差异是什么？
What are the differences between the American and British systems of government？
另外还有一个：
英国
英国是最早出现浪漫主义文学的国家之一。英国的浪漫主义作家不满于资本主义城市文明的发展，具有愤世嫉俗、归隐自然的倾向。18世纪中后期的诗人罗伯特·彭斯（1759年－1796年）和威廉·布莱克（1757年－1827年7）是浪漫主义文学的先驱，他们在英语诗歌文体和语言上做出了很多可贵的尝试。彭斯从苏格兰民歌中吸取养料，其《苏格兰方言诗集》擅长抒情和讽刺，语言通俗；布莱克的《天真之歌》、《经验之歌》则具有象征意义和神秘色彩，在20世纪大放异彩，影响了整个现代英诗。
然而，英国浪漫主义第一批真正的大师则是被称为“湖畔派”的三位诗人。威廉·华兹华斯（1770年－1850年）是湖畔派诗人中成就最高者，他与“湖畔派”另一诗人萨缪尔·柯勒律治（1772年－1834年）共同出版《抒情歌谣集》，成为英国浪漫主义文学的奠基之作。诗集中收录的诗歌大部分为华兹华斯所做，而柯勒律治的名诗《古舟子咏》和《忽必烈汉》亦收入其中，充满幻觉和奇谲的意象。然而华兹华斯这一时期最重要的作品则是长诗《序曲》。骚塞的诗歌极富古之幽情，与世俗格格不入。湖畔派三位诗人均蛰居于英国西北湖区，缅怀中世纪和宗法式的乡村生活，是浪漫主义文学中温婉清丽的代表。
乔治·拜伦（1788年－1824年）和雪莱（1792年－1822年）两位诗人将英国的浪漫主义文学推向高峰。他们和湖畔派诗人的不同之处在于其作品更具战斗意识和政治倾向。雪莱的代表作《解放了的普罗米修斯》通过神话描写被压迫的人民的苦难和暴君的必然下场，预言革命一定会到来。他的短诗《西风颂》、《致云雀》等音韵铿锵，更有“冬天如果来了，春天还会远吗？”等名句传世。拜伦是19世纪上半期最为著名的浪漫主义诗人，他一生游历各地，其诗作充满异域情调。代表作《唐璜》是对资本主义制度的一场深入骨髓的检阅，发人深省。在欧洲，拜伦成为一种文化现象。人们把孤独、悲壮、崇尚个人式反抗的浪漫主义者形象称为“拜伦式英雄”。拜伦晚年投身于希腊的民族解放运动，并最终因伤寒而死于希腊战场。
英国浪漫主义文学的代表人物还包括约翰·济慈（1795年－1821年）。他的创作生涯只有5年，却写出了著名的抒情诗《夜莺颂》和《希腊古瓮颂》，沉醉于古代世界田园牧歌的美景之中。瓦尔特·司各特（1771年－1823年）以创作小说为主，《艾凡赫》以12世纪的英国为背景，塑造绿林英雄罗宾汉的形象，他是欧洲历史小说的创始人。
美国
沃尔特·惠特曼由于美国和欧洲在历史、文化上的种种不同，以欧洲通行的文学流派的概念来衡量美国文学的发展实际上并不十分准确。但由于美国文学也是整个西方文学的一个部分，因此通常人们也将美国文学史放入整个西方文学史的框架内来研究。
美国的浪漫主义文学深受西欧浪漫主义文学的影响。19世纪上半叶，美国资本主义迅速发展，民族意识和爱国热情高涨，摆脱英国文学的束缚、重视人的精神创造和追求自由的超验主义蔚为大观，至此美国浪漫主义文学开始蓬勃发展。
爱默生 (Ralph Waldo Emerson)（1803年－1882年）和梭罗（1817年－1862年）是超验主义理论家，最先提出浪漫主义的主张。他们强调人的精神作用和直觉的意义，认为自然界充满灵性，人应该回归自然。梭罗的《瓦尔登湖》是美国浪漫主义文学的奠基之作。
美国前期浪漫主义作家的代表人物包括华盛顿·欧文（1783年－1859年）、詹姆斯·库柏（1789年－1851年）和爱伦·坡。欧文被称为美国文学之父，在他的小说中，“美国文学”这一概念第一次浮出水面，不再深受英国文学的拘束。库柏是美国民族文学的奠基人之一，他开创了以《皮袜子故事集》为代表的边疆传奇小说，最重要的一部是《最后一个莫希干人》。爱伦·坡主张艺术要使读者获得刺激而达到灵魂的升华，他的小说大部分以死亡、凶杀、复仇为题材，揭示人的幻觉状态和变态心理，他和法国诗人波德莱尔共同被尊为象征主义文学的先驱。
美国后期的浪漫主义文学以纳撒尼尔·霍桑（1804年－1864年）、沃尔特·惠特曼（1819年－1892年）和赫尔曼·麦尔维尔（1819年－1891年）为代表。霍桑在作品中对“隐秘的恶”进行挖掘，《红字》反映清教徒殖民统治的黑暗以及教会的虚伪和不公，象征手法运用纯熟。惠特曼的耗一生的经历编纂、扩充诗集《草叶集》，歌颂美利坚民族意识的觉醒，成为美国现代文学的鼻祖。麦尔维尔是美国浪漫主义小说家中成就最高者，擅长描写航海奇遇和异域风情，代表作《白鲸》是美国文学史上最杰出的小说之一，小说中的“白鲸”已经成为一种超然的、对人类怀有敌意而又难以征服的神秘物的图腾。
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