欧洲文化入门 论文
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Abstract:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
Keywords: National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要： 从殖民地时期起，欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期， 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大 影响 。一直到美国独立后，美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要，美国的民族文学开始 发展 。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭， 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期，产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义，和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的 时代 是美国前所未有的文学变动时代，产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量，也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响， 社会 动荡不安，这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面， 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展，创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后，美国人陷入战后的茫然， 美国也开始进入了 现代 文学阶段。
关键词： 民族文学， 浪漫主义， 超验主义， 本土色彩， 现实主义， 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition，and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
1. Colonial and early American literature
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However , because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
2. 18th century—the Age of reason
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.
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文艺复兴是14～16世纪反映西欧各国正在形成中的资产阶级要求的思想、文化运动。其主要中心最初在意大利.文艺复兴的实质:并非是单纯地复兴希腊、罗马的古典文化，而是一种新的文化形态的兴起，即资产阶级意识形态的、代表资产阶级利益和要求的、为资产阶级登上政治舞台进行鼓吹和摇旗呐喊的、是欧洲文化领域里的一次大解放运动。
文艺复兴揭开了现代欧洲历史的序幕，是中古时代和近代的分界。是封建主义时代和资本主义时代的分界。
文艺复兴一词就源于意大利语Rinascimento，意为再生或复兴，以后扩展到西欧各国，16世纪达到鼎盛。1550年，瓦萨里在其《艺苑名人传》中，正式使用它作为新文化的名称。此词经法语转写为Renaissance，17世纪后为欧洲各国通用。19世纪，西方史学界进一步把它作为14至16世纪西欧文化的总称。西方史学界曾认为它是古希腊、罗马帝国文化艺术的复兴。
产生:
天主教会垄断全部知识教育，用封建神学统治人们的思想，压制科学研究，文化陷入低潮。
新兴资产阶级为了发展资本主义和追求生活享受，要求在意识形态领域展�炊越袒岬亩氛�?
14～16世纪，在意大利首先迸发出一股资产阶级文化新潮流。
许多知识分子借助于古希腊、罗马的古典文化，从各个方面冲击教会的束缚，建立资产阶级人文主义的世界观。在当时人们看来是“文艺复兴”，其实是资产阶级文化的兴起。
14世纪时，随着工场手工艺业和商品经济的发展，资本主义关系已在欧洲封建制度内部逐渐形成；在政治上，封建割据已引起普遍不满，民族意识开始觉醒，欧洲各国大众表现了要求民族统一的强烈愿望。从而在文化艺术上也开始出现了反映新兴资本主义势力的利益和要求的新时期。新兴资产阶级认为中世纪文化是一种倒退，而希腊、罗马古典文化则是光明发达的典范，他们力图复兴古典文化——而所谓的“复兴”其实是一次对知识和精神的空前解放与创造。
当时的意大利处于城市林立的状态，各城市都是一个独立或半独立的国家，14世纪后各城市逐渐从共和制走向独裁。独裁者耽于享乐，信奉新柏拉图主义，希望摆脱宗教禁欲主义的束缚，大力保护艺术家对世俗生活的描绘。与此同时圣方济各会的宗教激进主义力图屏弃正统宗教的经院哲学，歌颂自然的美和人的精神价值。罗马教廷也在走向腐败，历届教皇的享乐规模比世俗独裁者还要厉害，他们也在保护艺术家，允许艺术偏离正统的宗教教条。哲学、科学都在逐渐地在比较宽松的气氛中发展，也酝酿着宗教改革的前奏。
文艺复兴运动起源于意大利北部，一般认为第一个代表人物是但丁，其代表作为《神曲》，他的作品首先以含蓄的手法批评和揭露中世纪宗教统治的腐败和愚蠢，以地方方言而不是作为中世纪欧洲正式文学语言的拉丁文进行创作。
另一个代表人物是彼特拉克，他认为古希腊、罗马时代是人性最完善的时代，中世纪将人性压制是违背自然的。他虽然对拉丁文学有深入广泛的研究，但用意大利方言写了大量的以十四行诗为形式的抒情诗歌，受到各城市国家统治者的热烈欢迎。
文艺复兴另一个重要原因是1453年奥斯曼土耳其帝国攻陷君士坦丁堡，东罗马帝国灭亡。大批受到东方文化影响，还保留古罗马帝国精神的人才逃往意大利，带回许多新鲜思想和艺术，在罗马开办教授希腊语的学校，促使了文艺复兴运动的形成。
三、文艺复兴的作品思想
文艺复兴时期的作品，集中体现了人文主义思想：主张个性解放，反对中世纪的禁欲主义和宗教观；提倡科学文化，反对蒙昧主义，摆脱教会对人们思想的束缚；肯定人权，反对神权，屏弃作为神学和经院哲学基础的一切权威和传统教条；拥护中央集权，反对封建割据，这是人文主义的主要思想。其中，代表性作品有：但丁的《神曲》、薄伽丘的《十日谈》、马基雅维利的《君主论》、拉伯雷的《巨人传》等。
文艺复兴时期的艺术歌颂了人体的美，主张人体比例是世界上最和谐的比例，并把它应用到建筑上，一系列的虽然仍然以宗教故事为主题的绘画、雕塑，但表现的都是普通人的场景，将神拉到了地上。
人文主义者开始用研究古典文学的方法研究圣经，将圣经翻译成本民族的语言，导致了宗教改革运动的兴起。
人文主义歌颂世俗蔑视天堂，标榜理性以取代神启，肯定“人”是现世生活的创造者和享受者，要求文学艺术表现人的思想感情，科学为人谋福利，教育要发展人的个性，要求把人的思想感情和智慧从神学的束缚中解放出来。提倡个性自由，因此在历史发展上起了很大的进步作用。
四、不同范畴中的文艺复兴
（一）自然科学
1、天文学
波兰天文学家哥白尼1543年出版了《天体运行论》，在其中提出了与托勒密的地心说体系不同的日心说体系。意大利思想家布鲁诺在《论无限性、宇宙和诸世界》、《论原因、本原和统一》等书中宣称，宇宙在空间与时间上都是无限的，太阳只是太阳系而非宇宙的中心。伽利略1609年发明了天文望远镜，1610年出版了《星界信使》，1632年出版了《关于托勒密和哥白尼两大世界体系的对话》。德国天文学家开普勒通过对其师丹麦天文学家第谷的观测数据的研究，在1609年的《新天文学》和1619年的《世界的谐和》提出了行星运动的三大定律，判定行星绕太阳运转是沿着椭圆形轨道进行的，而且这样的运动是不等速的。
2、数学
代数学在文艺复兴时期取得了重要发展，三、四次方程的解法被发现。意大利人卡尔达诺在他的著作《大术》中发表了三次方程的求根公式，但这一公式的发现实应归功于另一学者塔尔塔利亚。四次方程的解法由卡尔达诺的学生费拉里发现，在《大术》中也有记载。邦贝利在他的著作中阐述了三次方程不可约的情形，并使用了虚数，还改进了当时流行的代数符号。符号代数学是由16世纪的法国数学家韦达确立的。他于1591年出版了《分析方法入门》，对代数学加以系统的整理，第一次自觉地使用字母来表示未知数和已知数。韦达在他的另一部著作《论方程的识别与订正中，改进了三、四次方程的解法，还建立了二次和三次方程方程根与系数之间的关系，现代称之为韦达定理。 三角学在文艺复兴时期也获得了较大的发展。德国数学家雷格蒙塔努斯的《论各种三角形》是欧洲第一部独立于天文学的三角学著作。书中对平面三角和球面三角进行了系统的阐述，还有很精密的三角函数表。哥白尼的学生雷蒂库斯在重新定义三角函数的基础上，制作了更多精密的三角函数表。
3、物理学
在物理学方面，伽利略通过多次实验发现了落体、抛物体和振摆三大定律，使人对宇宙有了新的认识。他的学生托里拆利经过实验证明了空气压力，发明了水银柱气压计。法国科学家帕斯卡尔发现液体和气体中压力的传播定律。英国科学家波义耳发现气体压力定律。
4、生理学和医学
比利时医生维萨留斯发表《人体结构》一书，对盖伦的“三位一体”学说提出挑战。西班牙医生塞尔维特发现血液的小循环系统，证明血液从右心室流向肺部，通过曲折路线到达左心室。英国解剖学家哈维通过大量的动物解剖实验，发表《心血运动论》等论著，系统阐释了血液运动的规律和心脏的工作原理。他指出，心脏是血液运动的中心和动力的来源。这一重大发现使他成为近代生理学的鼻祖。
5、“地理大发现”
航海技术产生了一次革命性地飞跃，葡萄牙、西班牙、意大利的探险家们开始了一系列远程航海活动。哥伦布和麦哲伦等人在地理方面的发现，为地圆说提供了有力的证据。
6、印刷术在欧洲的再发现，以及从东方传过来的造纸、指南针、火药（中国的四大发明），促使科学思想的迅速传播。
（二）文学
各地的作家都开始使用自己的方言而非拉丁语进行文学创作，带动了大众文学，替各种语言注入大量文学作品，包括小说、诗、散文、民谣和戏剧等。
在意大利，文艺复兴前期出现了“文坛三杰”。但丁一生写下了许多学术著作和诗歌，其中著名的是《新生》和《神曲》。彼特拉克是人文主义的鼻祖，被誉为“人文主义之父”。他第一个发出复兴古典文化的号召，提出以“人学”反对“神学”。彼特拉克主要创作了许多优美的诗篇，代表作是抒情十四行诗诗集《歌集》。薄伽丘是意大利民族文学的奠基者，短篇小说集《十日谈》是他的代表作。
在法国，文艺复兴运动明显地形成两派，一是以“七星诗社”为代表的贵族派，二是以拉伯雷为代表的民主派。“七星诗社”以龙沙和杜贝莱为代表，在语言和诗歌理论方面做出了突出的贡献。他们最早提出统一民族语言的主张，促进了法国民族语言和民族文学的发展。然而，他们排斥民间诗歌，只为少数贵族服务。拉伯雷是继薄伽丘之后杰出的人文主义作家，是法国文艺复兴民主派的代表。他用20年时间创作的《巨人传》是一部现实与幻想交织的现实主义作品，在欧洲文学史和教育史上占有重要地位。
在英国，代表人物有托马斯·莫尔和莎士比亚。托马斯·莫尔是著名的人文主义思想家，也是空想社会主义的奠基人。1516年他用拉丁文写成的《乌托邦》是空想社会主义的第一部作品。莎士比亚是天才的戏剧家和诗人，他同荷马、但丁、歌德一起，被誉为欧洲划时代的四大作家。他的的作品结构完整，情节生动，语言丰富精炼，人物个性突出，集中地代表欧洲文艺复兴文学的最高成就，对欧洲现实主义文学的发展有深远的影响。
在西班牙，最杰出的代表人物是塞万提斯和维加。塞万提斯是现实主义作家、戏剧家和诗人。他创作了大量的诗歌、戏剧和小说，其中以长篇讽刺小说《堂·吉诃德》最著名，它对欧洲文学的发展产生了重大影响。维加是戏剧家、小说家和诗人，西班牙民族戏剧的奠基人，被誉为“西班牙戏剧之父”。 他是世界上罕见的多产作家，一生共创作了两千多个剧本，留传至今的有600多个，有宗教剧、历史剧、神话剧、袍剑剧、牧歌剧等多种形式，深刻反映了西班牙的社会现实，深受广大群众的喜爱。最杰出的代表作是《羊泉村》。
（三）建筑
文艺复兴建筑是在公元14世纪在意大利随着文艺复兴这个文化运动而诞生的建筑风格。基于对中世纪神权至上的批判和对人道主义的肯定，建筑师希望借助古典的比例来重新塑造理想中古典社会的协调秩序。所以一般而言文艺复兴的建筑是讲究秩序和比例的，拥有严谨的立面和平面构图以及从古典建筑中继承下来的柱式系统。
1、特色
*学习以古希腊古罗马为代表古典风格，并且发展了‘柱式’的概念。
*强调建筑的比例如同人的比例一样，反映了宇宙的和谐于规律，这一点上很强烈地体现了毕达哥拉斯，柏拉图传统的影响。
*使用对称的形状，集中式
*恢复“自然”，以尺规作图制图，以圆形和正方形为主
*反对哥特式建筑
2、著名建筑和建筑师
【Fillipo Brunelleschi（伯鲁乃列斯基）】
从时间和地点上来看，意大利的佛罗伦萨算是作为文艺复兴的开端了。建筑师Fillipo Brunelleschi在意大利佛罗伦萨所建的大教堂就没有采用歌德形式，而是看起来很像Byzantine的圣母大教堂，可是却没有采用三角帆拱，而是直接将尖拱放在了一个八角形的墙上。而最后看起来很危险的在顶上面的一个小亭子却起了连接拱的几个部分并且用自重将他们压在一起的作用。另外，这个拱顶是一个木结构的顶，而不是罗马的石或混凝土顶。
而他在Santa Sroce的Franciscan Friary的Closter中，为 Pazzi Family所建立的 Chapel真正用上了三角帆拱，这次下部的平面是一个正方形，而上是一个三角帆拱加圆拱，失传几个世纪的工艺终于复活。从此这种圆顶加上Basilika的平面成为了后来几个世纪内的标准。
【Leon Battista Alberti 莱昂.巴蒂斯塔.阿尔伯蒂】
Fillipo兼具了一个传统中世纪工匠的角色，真正作为复兴时期建筑师代表的，并且真正将文艺复兴建筑的营造提高到理论高度的是莱昂.巴蒂斯塔.阿尔伯蒂 ,他的论建筑于1485年出版。（这里值得一提的是Gutenberg发明了印刷术，使得文化的交流变得更加快速。这是文化传播的一个重要因素。）他在这本书里面体现了从文艺复兴人文主义者地角度讨论了建筑的可能性。他提出应该根据欧几里德的数学原理，在圆形，方形等基本集合体制上进行合乎比例的重新组合以找到建筑中美的黄金分割。他在建设Palazzo Rucellai的过程中 使用了各种柱式，而这些柱子都拥有经过精心推敲的比例。而宫殿的顶部也是独创的深出檐，甚至遮住了屋顶，使得建筑的外观保持完整的方形。
【布拉芒特】
布拉芒特（Donato Bramante）是将这种唯理主义古代精神推向极致的人，他竭尽所能的推敲每一个建筑比例，从他的Tempietto of San Pietro中你可以看到这种被推敲到近乎完美的比例 。而往后的很多公共，宗教建筑，比如圣彼得教堂，巴黎万神庙，甚至白宫都有布拉芒特的影子。
文艺复兴时期规模最宏大的作品可以说是圣彼得教堂，这个教堂的修建历史超过了一个世纪。而建筑师的名单列出来如同一个文艺复兴的名人录。而这个开端或者说骨架，则是由布拉芒特来完成的。而后陆陆续续有Raphael、Peruzzi、Sangallo the Younger、米开朗基罗、Vignola、Della Porta、Fontana和Maderna。
【米开朗基罗】
米开朗基罗并不是一个专业的建筑师，而是一个伟大的雕塑家。而正因为这一点是他避免的他的同代人过分纠缠于比例之中的弊端而从一个雕塑家独特的三维视角来提炼建筑。他利用各种手法，比如破坏均衡，或者是利用狭长的走道或者柱廊，来达到一种感动人心的建筑效果，而对于是否符合严格的古典比例却不是很在意。其中用于圣彼得大教堂的巨柱式便是他将普通柱式拔高几倍而得到的。而这种对于古典母题的创造性应用将文艺复兴引入了后期的手法主义。
【Palladio(帕拉蒂奥)】
在vicenca的领袖人物是Palladio、他是一个严肃的古典主义者，对于古典主义的蒸馏使得这位大师的作品总是带有钻石般的纯粹。体现了文艺复兴建筑的数学美感的精确性和那种对于集中式平面的控制力。而进一步看则可以看见在这种严格的美学体系下，作为建筑的主体已经被挤入一个很边缘的角落，建筑在Palladio的手中彻底变成了一个概念的载体。
五、文艺复兴的国家特征
（一）意大利与其代表人物
代表人物：
诗人：但丁、彼特拉克；
作家：薄伽丘、马基雅维利;
画家：乔托、波提切利、列奥纳多·达·芬奇、拉斐尔、提香；
雕刻家：米开朗基罗；建筑师：伯鲁涅列斯基；
音乐家：帕莱斯特里那、拉索等。
（二）西班牙与其代表人物
16世纪后半叶和17世纪初西班牙文艺复兴进入“黄金时期”，在小说和戏剧方面成绩显著。
代表人物：作家塞万提斯、戏剧家洛卜·德·维加
（三）德国与其代表人物
在德国：主要成就则表现在宗教改革、农民战争、讽刺文学以及科学技术发明等方面。
代表人物：马丁·路德、丢勒等。
（四）法国与其代表人物
在法国：自由思想和怀疑思想相当发达。
代表人物：散文家：蒙田、小说家：拉伯雷等。
（五）英国与其代表人物
在英国：诗歌和戏剧空前的繁荣。
代表人物：作家莎士比亚等。
六、文艺复兴的意义
有好一段时间，文艺复兴被认为是简单地恢复了古典文化。其实，文艺复兴并不是真正要“恢复”古典的文化，而是借此抨击当时的文化和制度，以建立新的文化，为建立新的社会制度体系造舆论。
文艺复兴是一次逐渐发展的时期，没有明确的分界线和事件。但文艺复兴使当时的人们思想发生了变化，导致了宗教改革和激烈的宗教战争。后来的启蒙运动以文艺复兴为自己的榜样。19世纪的历史学家认为后来的科学发展、地理大发现、民族国家的诞生都是源于文艺复兴。文艺复兴是“黑暗时代”的中世纪和近代的分水岭，是资产阶级革命的舆论前提。文艺复兴是使欧洲摆脱腐朽的封建宗教束缚，向全世界扩张的一个前奏曲。
其主要表现在：
1、文艺复兴是思想文化领域的一次伟大变革，具有巨大生命力。
2、产生了近代科学，推动了人类科学与文明的进步。
5.欧洲的启蒙运动
（1）启蒙运动的性质：启蒙运动是欧洲继文艺复兴以来的第二次思想解放
运动，实质是资产阶级为了向封建阶级夺取政权，确立资本主义统治而做的舆
论和意识形态方面的准备。启蒙运动在17世纪兴起于英国，18世纪法国成为
启蒙运动的中心，到60年代达到高潮。
（2）启蒙运动产生和发展的主要原因：①经济基础是资本主义工商业在欧
洲的普遍发展。②阶级基础是资产阶级力量的壮大。封建专制制度已成为资
产阶级进一步发展的障碍，他们迫切要求改变有钱无权、经济受到政治阻碍的
现状，为迎接资产阶级革命的到来，他们需要有新的思想政治理论武器。③自
然科学技术的发展，打破了桎梏人们心灵的神权统治和蒙昧主义，促进人们解
放思想，更新观念，增强了人们依靠自身力量实现文明和幸福的信心。④文艺
复兴和宗教改革一方面冲破了神学束缚，解放了人们的思想，为启蒙运动奠定
了思想基础；另一方面又不能满足资产阶级反对封建专制统治，建立资本主义
制度，发展资本主义经济的需要。⑤封建专制制度日趋腐朽，封建统治陷入全
面危机，加上教会日益腐败，致使社会矛盾进一步激化。
（3）特征：强调理性思考，主张用理性的阳光驱散现实的黑暗，批判专制主
义、教权主义，号召消灭王权，贵族特权和等级制定，追求政治民主、权利平等
和个人自由，为资本主义社会确立了一套政治构想。
（4）主要学说：三权分立学说、天赋人权学说、社会契约论和人民主权说。
（5）影响：为即将到来的法国大革命做了充分的思想准备；启蒙思想的学
说在欧美传播，对欧美资产阶级的革命起了推动作用；鼓舞了亚洲的仁人志士
为改造旧社会而斗争。
（6）文艺复兴与启蒙运动的联系和区别
区别：①文艺复兴运动是在资本主义萌芽初步发展，封建教会神学统治人
民的背景下产生的，因此它们反对的主要是宗教神学思想，追求现世的幸福。
②启蒙运动则是资本主义进一步发展，欧洲各国封建君主改革强化了专制主
义的背景下兴起的，因此它反对的是封建专制主义，追求的是自由平等。
联系：两者都是资产阶级性质的思想解放运动，都为资产阶级取得政治、
经济上的统治地位做了思想上的准备。
Abstract:
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realized that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to developed. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence of Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
Keywords: National Literature, Romanism, Transcendentalism, Local Color, Realism, Modern literature
摘要： 从殖民地时期起，欧洲殖民者和清教徒翻开了美国文学史的第一页。 这往后很长一段时期， 美国文学一直都受到欧洲文化的很大 影响 。一直到美国独立后，美国人强烈地感觉到了民族文学的需要，美国的民族文学开始 发展 。 南北战争是美国文学史上一个分水岭， 战后美国文学进入了一个全盛时期，产生了强调个性主义和直觉的早期浪漫主义，和以爱默生为代表的超验主义文学。爱默生的 时代 是美国前所未有的文学变动时代，产生了一大批优秀的作家和作品。 他们突出地给予了当时美国文学以深度和力量，也促进了罗曼主义高潮的来临。但是由于战争的影响， 社会 动荡不安，这时的作品更注重于揭示社会的阴暗面， 同时美国的民族文学进一步发展，创作出许多带有本土色彩和批判现实主义的作品。 一战后，美国人陷入战后的茫然， 美国也开始进入了 现代 文学阶段。
关键词： 民族文学， 浪漫主义， 超验主义， 本土色彩， 现实主义， 现代文学
American is a multi-national country. Just like a big container, which put in various kinds of elements. Different cultures, that can not only be co-existed but also form a sharp contrast, mixed together, It makes American literature style has a flavor of distinct and various aesthetic feeling. Many writers come from lower level, which makes American literature has the rich flavor of life and local color. Furthermore, many new styles of literature in the world are oriented in America since 20th century.
The process of American literature can be divided into following main periods: Colony and Puritan literature; early national literature; latter national literature and Modern literature.
America’s history of literature began with the swarming in of immigrants with different background and cultures. After that, American literature had been greatly influenced by the European culture for a long period. It was not until America’s independence, did Americans realize that they need national literature strongly, and American literature began to develop. The Civil War was a watershed in the history, after which American literature entered a period of full blooming. Romantics, which emphasized individualism and intuition，and Tnscendentalism represented by Emerson came out into being. This was an exciting period in the history of American literature. Like the flowers of spring, there were suddenly many different kinds of writing at the same time. They have given depth and strength to American literature, and accelerated the forming of High Romantics. But due to the influence if Civil War, the American society was in a turbulent situation. The writings about local life, critical realism and unveiling the dark side of the society were increased. After The First World War, Americans were at a loss postwar, and the Modern American literature began.
1. Colonial and early American literature
(1). Travelers and Explorers
When the European explorers first came to this new continent, the native Indians who probably got here from Asia about fifteen thousand years ago were still in origin, and they even had no written language, “The traditional literature was originally transmitted almost entirely by word of mouth, and therefore belongs to the category of oral literature,” (Wu Dingbo, 1) As time past, more and more travelers and explorers swarmed in. They wrote a lot of diaries、letters, and travel accounts to describe the new land as second Eden. No wander somebody said that the earliest American literature were the travel accounts written by European adventurers. Among the most remained were Captain John Smith’s True Relation of Virginia (1608), and Description of New England (1616).
Although most of the Indian history was preserved in tales and songs, they had thoughts about life and nature. They loved the natural world around them deeply, and they believed that when a person was dead, he would give back what had borrowed while he was alive to nature. This kind of philosophy had influenced later or even modern American writers. It’s interesting that when we look at the literature of the Puritans, the Transcendentalists, the Naturalists, and even the Moderns, when we read Anne Bradstreet, Emily Dickinson, Stephen Crane, and Ernest Hemingway, we can find similar themes.
(2) Pilgrim settlements
Several years later, another group of settlers also arrived in the New World. This group was looking for the Jamestown settlement. However , because of bad navigation, they landed in Massachusetts. They were also coming to the New World with dreams of success, but their goal was different from the Jamestown settlement. They wanted to start a new world governed by the Bible. They were called Puritans because they wanted to live a better life by making themselves pure. They first arrived on the Mayflower and settled in Plymouth. This is the group we are usually thinking about when we talk about the "first Americans."The clearest history of their journey to the New World can be found in History of Plymouth Plantation (1608) written by William Bradford, who was also one of the Mayflower passengers. The History of Plymouth Plantation is a Puritan book in the best sense. “It’s loosely annalistic, but a direct and simple style gives charm, as a sincere faith in Puritanism gives purity, to the entire book.” (W. P. Trent, 1997)
The Puritans had several kinds of literature. By far the most common form is the writing related to Biblical teachings, or sermons, that the church leaders wrote. The Puritans believed that they were in the New World because God had brought them there for a special purpose. They thought that by studying the Bible they could learn more about this way of life. So they were very strict to their life, and they didn’t allow any kind of entertainment even in literature. That’s way Wu Dingbo said in his book “Literature of the New England Settlement is mainly a literary expression of the Puritan idealism” and “The literature of the colonial settlement served either God or colonial expansion or both.” (Wu Dingbo, 4)
Another important form of writing from this period is the histories. These books, like Bradford's History of Plymouth Plantation, are important because they tell us about life at the time of the Puritans.
People also wrote many poems. But a lot of works were hidden and lost because people often considered poetry to be an inferior form of writing and not totally acceptable to Puritan thinking.
One of the most significant poets from this period was Anne Bradstreet (1612-1672). Her poems in Tenth Muse Lately Sprung Up In America (1650) reflected the con concerns of women who came to settle in the colonies, and in all her poems, however, she shows her strong belief in God.
2. 18th century—the Age of reason
(1) The Age of reason
In the 18th century, people believed in man’s own nature and the power of human reason. With Franklin as its spokesman, the 18th century America experienced an age of reason.
Words had never been so useful and so important in human history. People wrote a lot of political writings. Numerous pamphlets and printings were published. These works agitated revolutionary people not only in America but also around the world.
Among the most renowned was the work Common Sense (1776) of Thomas Paine (1737-1809). It’s the ringing call for the decoration of liberty. He also wrote Crisis (1774-1783) and The Age of Reason (1794-1796), according to Wu, “He thought that religion should be based on rational, reasonable ground. ” (Wu Dingbo, 12) The pamphlets helped complete the debate that resulted in America's separation from England.
And of course for all the Americans, the most important document from this period was a single sheet of paper called The Declaration of Independence (1776), mainly written by Thomas Jefferson and Benjamin Franklin.
Benjamin Franklin (1706-1790), the most distinguished person and giant in American history, he wrote and worked for American independence hardly and had made so many great efforts to America that he has been called "The First American." a world-renowned scientist, diplomat, philosopher, and writer. He perfected the smooth, clear, short sentences of the Puritan plain style. His Autobiography encourages hard work and emphasizes the importance of achievement. Another work that is well known is Poor Richard's Almanack, and many of the sentences have become popular quotations.
During this time writers thought that the truth should be relied on Bible, churchmen, authorities, or practice and experience.
(2) Early National Literature
During the period of American Revolution War, American national literature came into being. Since before the war, American people have already had the awareness of national independence, so they wrote many political writings revolutionary poems.
The war helped the first important American prose writers and poets grow up both culturally and artistically. Furthermore, the independence of nation led to the independence of national literature. From this moment on, American people began to understand of meaning of being a real ”American“.
放不下了，后面还有，在下面的网站里。满意拿分
我是外语学院的，我们经常搞这些，记得上铺写过这么一篇，给分吧，我晚上问问
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长白朝鲜族自治县13351909250： 欧洲地域文化差异及其建筑风格?论文 ？
汪购威灵： 1欧洲地域文化: 西欧北欧(大概一样) 东欧(俄罗斯为代表)被欧盟挤兑2其建筑风格 巴洛克建筑、法国古典主义建筑、哥特式建筑、功能主义建筑、古典复兴建筑、古罗马建筑、浪漫主义建筑、罗曼建筑、洛克克风格、文艺复兴建筑、现代主义建筑、后现代主义建筑、有机建筑、折衷主义建筑
长白朝鲜族自治县13351909250： 英语翻译It dealt with,among other things,the problem of how,in the complex,ever—changng world,men were to attain knowledge.【选自《欧洲文化入门》,外... - ？
汪购威灵：[答案] 【主语 It】【谓语 dealt with】,【插入语 among other things】,【宾语 the problem】of【宾语同位语从句 how,(插入语 in the complex,ever—changng world),men were to attain knowledge】. 翻译:它解决的问题之一,就是在这个复杂多变的世界上...
长白朝鲜族自治县13351909250： 关于欧洲文化的论文 - ？
汪购威灵： 看看韦尔斯的《世界史纲》吧,那里面谈了人种、环境、语言等方面对文化的影响,刚好他又是欧洲人 应该很有参考价值吧
长白朝鲜族自治县13351909250： 求有关西方文明史的论文 - ？
汪购威灵： 中世纪界定于公元476 年西罗马帝国灭亡至公元1453 年东罗马帝国灭亡的这一历史时期.中世纪是全世界封建制社会形成到发展的时期,也是世界三大宗教形成并广泛传播的时期.基督教文化在中世纪欧洲取得了万流归宗的地位. 欧洲人的生...
长白朝鲜族自治县13351909250： 欧洲文化对我的影响写成3000字的论文 - ？
汪购威灵： 三千字在这里写不下,我主要给你几点提示:欧洲文化都有哪些,有哪些是积极的,有哪些是对我们有害的,然后举出几点例子.然后影响我的方面,我是如何取其精华去其糟粕的.按照第一段写的主要内容,改一种词汇或者是方式再总结一边.于是三千字应该会超出一部分
长白朝鲜族自治县13351909250： 求500字小论文 论希腊罗马神话对欧洲文化的影响 - ？
汪购威灵： 500字太多了 就简单谈下吧,你可以从我的框架里填内容.分三个时间段来说: 欧洲古代, 基督教盛行时代, 文艺复兴及其以后时代 在基督教一统欧洲前,希腊罗马神话对欧洲影响其实并不大,主要是在语言的形成上,比如英语(就是山寨版的...
长白朝鲜族自治县13351909250： 欧洲文化入门希腊和罗马相同点和不同点 - ？
汪购威灵： 希腊是城邦文明罗马是大帝国.两者的差别就有如春秋战国秦汉之间的关系,希腊文化影响了罗马文明.罗马文明在继承了希腊文明的继承上又有所创新
