关于money 的英语议论文
作者&投稿：张崔 （若有异议请与网页底部的电邮联系）
关于香港的议论文可以以香港回归作为主题，描述事情的原由到结束，最后以中国成立香港特别行政区作为收尾。
香港回归是指中华人民共和国政府决定在一九九七年七月一日对香港恢复行使主权，大不列颠及北爱尔兰联合王国政府于一九九七年七月一日将香港交还给中华人民共和国的历史事件。
1997年7月1日当日，香港特别行政区成立，结束长达155年的英国的统治，香港由香港特别行政区政府管理。绝大部份香港华裔居民自动成为中华人民共和国公民。
英国对香港的殖民统治时间是第一次鸦片战争，当时清朝战败于1842年签订的《南京条约》，将香港岛及鸭脷洲割让给英国。1860年，清朝再次被英法联军打败，签订《北京条约》将九龙半岛界限街以南及昂船洲交给英国管治。
1898年(清光绪二十四年)，清朝与英国签订《展拓香港界址专条》，租借新界99年，至1997年6月30日期满。这三份条约正本由台湾当局外交部典藏于台北国立故宫博物院。
1982年，英国政府与中华人民共和国政府开始就香港前途问题谈判。虽然《南京条约》与《北京条约》皆指香港岛及鸭脷洲与界限街以南的九龙及昂船洲永久割予英国；
中华人民共和国拒绝承认《展拓香港界址专条》等所有相关不平等条约，只承认香港受英国管理，而非英国属地，并要求英国将香港岛和九龙连同新界一并交还。1997年，英国政府决定将香港的主权交给中国，但同时争取维持英国在香港的利益。
中英双方最终在1984年12月19日签订了《中英联合声明》，决定了1997年7月1日起，中国成立香港特别行政区，开始对香港岛、界限街以南的九龙半岛、新界等土地行使主权和治权。
扩展资料：
香港自古以来就是中国的领土，1842-1997年间曾受英国殖民统治。二战以后，香港经济和社会迅速发展，不仅跻身“亚洲四小龙”行列，更成为全球最富裕、经济最发达和生活水准最高的地区之一。1997年7月1日，中国政府对香港恢复行使主权，香港特别行政区成立。
中央拥有对香港的全面管治权，香港保持原有的资本主义制度长期不变，并享受外交及国防以外所有事务的高度自治权，以“中国香港”的名义参加众多国际组织和国际会议。“一国两制”、“港人治港”、高度自治是中国政府的基本国策。
Money
What is money?someone says it is nothing while others say it is the most important thing in their life and without it they can’t live any longer.
It said:money is not everything ,but without it you can’t do any thing. In my opinion, it is right . but we should also hold a right attitude to it.
钱
钱是什么？有人说它是什么，而另一些人则说这是在他们的生活中，没有它就活不下去的最重要的事情。
它说：钱不是万能的，但没有它，你不能做任何事。在我看来，这是正确的。但是我们应该也会举办一个正确的态度。
The term "price system" is sometimes used to refer to methods using commodity valuation or money accounting systems.
The word "money" is believed to originate from a temple of Hera Hera, located on Capitoline, one of Rome's seven hills. In the ancient world Hera was often associated with money. The temple of Juno Moneta at Rome was the place where the mint of Ancient Rome was located.[4]. The name "Juno" may derive from the Etruscan goddess Uni (which means "the one", "unique", "unit", "union", "united") and "Moneta" either from the Latin word "monere" (remind, warn, or instruct) or the Greek word "moneres" (alone, unique).Economic characteristics
Money is generally considered to have the following characteristics, which are summed up in a rhyme found in older economics textbooks: "Money is a matter of functions four, a medium, a measure, a standard, a store." That is, money functions as a medium of exchange, a unit of account, a standard of deferred payment, and a store of value.[2][5][6]
There have been many historical arguments regarding the combination of money's functions, some arguing that they need more separation and that a single unit is insufficient to deal with them all. One of these arguments is that the role of money as a medium of exchange is in conflict with its role as a store of value: its role as a store of value requires holding it without spending, whereas its role as a medium of exchange requires it to circulate.[6] Others argue that storing of value is just deferral of the exchange, but does not diminish the fact that money is a medium of exchange that can be transported both across space and time.[7] 'Financial capital' is a more general and inclusive term for all liquid instruments, whether or not they are a uniformly recognized tender.
Medium of exchange
Main article: Medium of exchange
Money is used as an intermediary for trade, in order to avoid the inefficiencies of a barter system, which are sometimes referred to as the 'double coincidence of wants problem'. Such usage is termed a medium of exchange.
Unit of account
Main article: Unit of account
A unit of account is a standard numerical unit of measurement of the market value of goods, services, and other transactions. Also known as a "measure" or "standard" of relative worth and deferred payment, a unit of account is a necessary prerequisite for the formulation of commercial agreements that involve debt.
Divisible into small units without destroying its value; precious metals can be coined from bars, or melted down into bars again.
Fungible: that is, one unit or piece must be perceived as equivalent to any other, which is why diamonds, works of art or real estate are not suitable as money.
A specific weight, or measure, or size to be verifiably countable. For instance, coins are often made with ridges around the edges, so that any removal of material from the coin (lowering its commodity value) will be easy to detect.
Store of value
Main article: Store of value
To act as a store of value, a commodity, a form of money, or financial capital must be able to be reliably saved, stored, and retrieved — and be predictably useful when it is so retrieved. Fiat currency like paper or electronic currency no longer backed by gold in most countries is not considered by some economists to be a store of value.
Market liquidity
Main article: Market liquidity
Liquidity describes how easily an item can be traded for another item, or into the common currency within an economy. Money is the most liquid asset because it is universally recognised and accepted as the common currency. In this way, money gives consumers the freedom to trade goods and services easily without having to barter.
Liquid financial instruments are easily tradable and have low transaction costs. There should be no — or minimal — spread between the prices to buy and sell the instrument being used as money.
Types of money
In economics, money is a broad term that refers to any financial instrument that can fulfill the functions of money (detailed above). Modern monetary theory distinguishes among different types of monetary aggregates, using a categorization system that focuses on the liquidity of the financial instrument used as money.
Commodity money
Main article: Commodity money
Commodity money value comes from the commodity out of which it is made. The commodity itself constitutes the money, and the money is the commodity.[8] Examples of commodities that have been used as mediums of exchange include gold, silver, copper, rice, salt, peppercorns, large stones, decorated belts, shells, alcohol, cigarettes, cannabis, candy, barley, etc. These items were sometimes used in a metric of perceived value in conjunction to one another, in various commodity valuation or Price System economies. Use of commodity money is similar to barter, but a commodity money provides a simple and automatic unit of account for the commodity which is being used as money.
Representative money
Main article: Representative money
Representative money is money that consists of token coins, other physical tokens such as certificates, and even non-physical "digital certificates" (authenticated digital transactions) that can be reliably exchanged for a fixed quantity of a commodity such as gold, silver or potentially water, oil or food. Representative money thus stands in direct and fixed relation to the commodity which backs it, while not itself being composed of that commodity.
Credit money is any claim against a physical or legal person that can be used for the purchase of goods and services.[8] Credit money differs from commodity and fiat money in two ways: It is not payable on demand (although in the case of fiat money, "demand payment" is a purely symbolic act since all that can be demanded is other types of fiat currency) and there is some element of risk that the real value upon fulfillment of the claim will not be equal to real value expected at the time of purchase.[8]
This risk comes about in two ways and affects both buyer and seller.
First it is a claim and the claimant may default (not pay). High levels of default have destructive supply side effects. If manufacturers and service providers do not receive payment for the goods they produce, they will not have the resources to buy the labor and materials needed to produce new goods and services. This reduces supply, increases prices and raises unemployment, possibly triggering a period of stagflation. In extreme cases, widespread defaults can cause a lack of confidence in lending institutions and lead to economic depression. For example, abuse of credit arrangements is considered one of the significant causes of the Great Depression of the 1930s.[9]
The second source of risk is time. Credit money is a promise of future payment. If the interest rate on the claim fails to compensate for the combined impact of the inflation (or deflation) rate and the time value of money, the seller will receive less real value than anticipated. If the interest rate on the claim overcompensates, the buyer will pay more than expected.
Fiat money
Main article: Fiat money
Fiat money is any money whose value is determined by legal means. The terms fiat currency and fiat money relate to types of currency or money whose usefulness results not from any intrinsic value or guarantee that it can be converted into gold or another currency, but instead from a government's order (fiat) that it must be accepted as a means of payment.[10] [11]
Fiat money is created when a type of credit money (typically notes from a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve System in the U.S.) is declared by a government act (fiat) to be acceptable and officially-recognized payment for all debts, both public and private. Fiat money may thus be symbolic of a commodity or a government promise, though not a completely specified amount of either of these. Fiat money is thus not technically fungible or tradable directly for fixed quantities of anything, except more of the same government's fiat money. Fiat moneys usually trade against each other in value in an international market, as with other goods. An exception to this is when currencies are locked to each other, as explained below. Many but not all fiat moneys are accepted on the international market as having value. Those that are trade indirectly against any internationally available goods and services [8]. Thus the number of U.S. dollars or Japanese yen which are equivalent to each other, or to a gram of gold metal, are all market decisions which change from moment to moment on a daily basis. Occasionally, a country will peg the value of its fiat money to that of the fiat money of a larger economy: for example the Belize dollar trades in fixed proportion (at 2:1) to the U.S. dollar, so there is no floating value ratio of the two currencies.
Fiat money, if physically represented in the form of currency (paper or coins) can be easily damaged or destroyed. However, here fiat money has an advantage over representative or commodity money, in that the same laws that created the money can also define rules for its replacement in case of damage or destruction. For example, the U.S. government will replace mutilated federal reserve notes (U.S. fiat money) if at least half of the physical note can be reconstructed, or if it can be otherwise proven to have been destroyed.[12] By contrast, commodity money which has been destroyed or lost is gone.
Money supply
Main article: Money supply
The money supply is the amount of money within a specific economy available for purchasing goods or services. The supply in the US is usually considered as four escalating categories M0, M1, M2 and M3. The categories grow in size with M3 representing all forms of money (including credit) and M0 being just base money (coins, bills, and central bank deposits). M0 is also money that can satisfy private banks' reserve requirements. In the US, the Federal Reserve is responsible for controlling the money supply, while in the Euro area the respective institution is the European Central Bank. Other central banks with significant impact on global finances are the Bank of Japan, People's Bank of China and the Bank of England.
When gold is used as money, the money supply can grow in either of two ways. First, the money supply can increase as the amount of gold increases by new gold mining at about 2% per year, but it can also increase more during periods of gold rushes and discoveries, such as when Columbus discovered the new world and brought gold back to Spain, or when gold was discovered in California in 1848. This kind of increase helps debtors, and causes inflation, as the value of gold goes down. Second, the money supply can increase when the value of gold goes up. This kind of increase in the value of gold helps savers and creditors and is called deflation, where items for sale are less expensive in terms of gold. Deflation was the more typical situation for over a century when gold and credit money backed by gold were used as money in the US from 1792 to 1913.
Monetary policy
Main article: Monetary policy
Monetary policy is the process by which a government, central bank, or monetary authority manages the money supply to achieve specific goals. Usually the goal of monetary policy is to accommodate economic growth in an environment of stable prices. For example, it is clearly stated in the Federal Reserve Act that the Board of Governors and the Federal Open Market Committee should seek “to promote effectively the goals of maximum employment, stable prices, and moderate long-term interest rates.”[13]
A failed monetary policy can have significant detrimental effects on an economy and the society that depends on it. These include hyperinflation, stagflation, recession, high unemployment, shortages of imported goods, inability to export goods, and even total monetary collapse and the adoption of a much less efficient barter economy. This happened in Russia, for instance, after the fall of the Soviet Union.
Governments and central banks have taken both regulatory and free market approaches to monetary policy. Some of the tools used to control the money supply include:
changing the rate at which the government loans or borrows money
currency purchases or sales
increasing or lowering government borrowing
increasing or lowering government spending
manipulation of exchange rates
raising or lowering bank reserve requirements
regulation or prohibition of private currencies
taxation or tax breaks on imports or exports of capital into a country
For many years much of monetary policy was influenced by an economic theory known as monetarism. Monetarism is an economic theory which argues that management of the money supply should be the primary means of regulating economic activity. The stability of the demand for money prior to the 1980s was a key finding of Milton Friedman and Anna Schwartz[14] supported by the work of David Laidler[15], and many others.
The nature of the demand for money changed during the 1980s owing to technical, institutional, and legal factors and the influence of monetarism has since decreased.
History of money The use of barter like methods may date back to at least 100,000 years ago. Trading in red ochre is attested in Swaziland, shell jewellery in the form of strung beads also dates back to this period, and had the basic attributes needed of commodity money. To organize production and to distribute goods and services among their populations, before market economies existed, people relied on tradition, top-down command, or community cooperation.
The Shekel referred to an ancient unit of weight and currency. The first usage of the term came from Mesopotamia circa 3000 BC. and referred to a specific mass of barley which related other values in a metric such as silver, bronze, copper etc. A barley/shekel was originally both a unit of currency and a unit of weight.
According to Herodotus, and most modern scholars, the Lydians were the first people to introduce the use of gold and silver coin.[17] It is thought that these first stamped coins were minted around 650-600 BC.[18] A stater coin was made in the stater (trite) denomination. To complement the stater, fractions were made: the trite (third), the hekte (sixth), and so forth in lower denominations.
The name of Croesus of Lydia became synonymous with wealth in antiquity. Sardis was renowned as a beautiful city. Around 550 BC, Croesus contributed money for the construction of the temple of Artemis at Ephesus, one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world.
The first banknotes were used in China in the 7th century, and the first in Europe issued by Stockholms Banco in 1661.
In the Western world, a prevalent term for coin-money has been specie, stemming from Latin in specie "in kind".[19]
See also
Numismatics portal
Wikiquote has a collection of quotations related to: Money
Look up Money in
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Category:Money
Coin of account
Counterfeit, for Counterfeiting of Money
Credit money
Currency market
Economics
Electronic money
Federal Reserve
Fractional reserve banking
Full reserve banking
Labor-time voucher
Local Exchange Trading Systems
Money creation
non-market economics
Numismatics — Collection and study of money
Seignorage
Standard of deferred payment
World currency
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