急求！一篇2000字的英文论文 题目TCM in western world

一篇2000字的英语论文，写些什么好？论些什么？没有头绪~

The characteristics of the world top 500 enterprises and its enlightenment to Chinese enterprises
A,the definition of us-funded enterprises in the world
World us-funded enterprises that adopt diversified business,implement the strategy of globalization,assets,strong,has a large and strong,the core competitiveness of enterprises has significant influence on the development of world economy and stability of the world's leading multinational companies.
Second,the world a us-funded enterprise features
1) ability to innovate
Everything in the world has a production,development and decline of life cycle.Enterprise as economic actors also undergoes a start-up period,rising period,height,decay time and ruin the life course.Enterprise is the key of the length of the life cycle after a start-up period,how to accelerate the rise period,prolong their heyday,the arrival of the postponed its decline period.Product life cycle relative to the enterprise life cycle is short,the enterprise must develop more innovative products of market value,one or several products meet after rising and heyday,when its not yet enter the decline phase,the other one or several products have reached the peak.So interlocking,bobo is connected,the enterprise will be endless.

Cooperation and the Commons
Sustainably managing common natural resources, such as fisheries, water, and forests, is essential for our long-term survival. Many analysts have assumed, however, that people will maximize short-term self-benefits—for example, by cutting as much firewood as they can sell—and warned that this behavior will inevitably produce a “tragedy of the commons” (1), such as a stripped forest that no longer produces wood for anyone. But in laboratory simulations of such social dilemmas, the outcome is not always tragedy. Instead, a basic finding is that humans do not universally maximize short-term self-benefits, and can cooperate to produce shared, long-term benefits (2, 3). Similar findings have come from field studies of commonly managed resources (6–7). It has been challenging, however, to directly relate laboratory findings to resource conditions in the field, and identify the conditions that enhance cooperation. On page 961 of this issue, Rustagi et al. (8) help fill this gap. In an innovative study of Ethiopia's Oromo people, they use economic experiments and forest growth data to show that groups that had a higher proportion of “conditional cooperators” were more likely to invest in forest patrols aimed at enforcing firewood collection rules—and had more productive forests. They also show that other factors, including a group's distance to markets and the quality of its leadership, influenced the success of cooperative management.

Researchers have translated social dilemmas into economic games in which the players—typically college students in the United States or Europe—can earn real money, depending on whether they and others “invest” in a common good, or become “free riders” who benefit without paying their fair share. Cardenas (9) was the first to translate a game carried out with students using computers in a lab (5) into a pen-and-paper version that was played by actual users of local forests in Colombia. This field effort essentially replicated the lab findings, but the levels of cooperative behavior observed were more variable. Other field experiments examined how people who relied on forests, fisheries, and grazing lands responded to experimental designs that enabled them to impose sanctions on free riders, including varying monetary penalties (10, 11). Several examined whether rules established by an external authority—such as a government—“crowded out” a group's motivation to cooperate
In Ethiopia's Bale Mountains, Rustagi et al. took these experiments a step further. There, high livestock density poses a major threat to forests, because the animals browse on young trees. To address this and other problems, officials launched a forest management program that gave Bale Oromo groups common ownership of woodlands, and responsibility for maintaining forest cover. To explore the role of cooperation in the success of these efforts, Rustagi et al. first set up “field labs” in a number of villages, and invited residents to play games designed to measure their propensity to cooperate (conditional on others' cooperation). They also conducted surveys that gathered socioeconomic data and information about resource monitoring efforts. Finally, they compared the game results and the survey data from 49 groups to measurements of potential crop trees, an indicator of forest productivity. Overall, they found that the groups with the larger shares of conditionally cooperative members were more likely to be successful in managing their forest commons. They also invested more in “costly” enforcement of cooperation (participating in forest patrols, which promote cooperation by sanctioning free riders).

By establishing this link between the levels of cooperation observed in field labs with local forest conditions, Rustagi et al. have increased the confidence that scholars can have in the external validity of results from previous experiments carried out all over the world, with student and nonstudent subjects. In addition, by adding to findings showing diverse levels of cooperation in social dilemmas, rather than no cooperation, they support the growing acceptance of a behavioral theory of human action (14): Individuals facing dilemmas, who learn from experience and adopt a norm of conditional cooperation, achieve levels of cooperation that increase over time—if a sufficient number of conditional cooperators are present. If a group is composed of a substantial number of free riders, however, cooperation levels fall over time.

One way of interpreting Rustagi et al.'s findings is that learning and norm-adopting individuals are attracted to certain situations, and then are affected by the behavior of other actors facing the same situation (see the figure). Initially, this leads to some degree of cooperation (e.g., acceptance of rules of the forest group, monitoring other users, and helping to maintain their forest). If enough individuals initially cooperate, they slowly obtain benefits from the forest, and levels of cooperation grow. Alternatively, initial cooperation rates can be low, and then can continue to decline over time.

Rustagi et al. identify a number of well-known variables that can influence cooperation, including the size of the forest group, its leadership, and the heterogeneity of the group. Other, broader, variables include village elevation and market access, with villages closer to markets for wood products more likely to invest in cooperative management. Other field studies have found that prior experience in cooperative management increases the likelihood of groups successfully managing a resource.

Rustagi et al. also found that the share of conditional cooperators in a group is affected by clan affiliation and the leader, who needs to have sufficient prestige to change the norms of the group. Other recent evidence from field experiments shows that resource users responded prosocially to environmental appeals made by park rangers (15). More details of cultural effects on cooperation are provided by Prediger et al. (16), who use a socioecological framework (17) to identify main differences between two populations before performing field experiments. They show that historical events that interfere with self-governance, as well as subtle ecological differences, can affect the propensity to cooperate.

More research is needed to explain the factors that produce variation in cooperation. Using multiple methods (18) to identify the relevant “microsituational” and broader contextual variables, and using robust econometric methods to link these variables with differences in behavior and real-world outcomes, will constitute a major step in advancing a behavioral theory of human action.
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Traditional Chinese medicine
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Alternative medical systems Acupuncture • Anthroposophic medicine • Ayurveda • Chiropractic • Herbalism • Homeopathy • Naturopathy • Neural therapy • Osteopathy • Traditional medicine (Chinese • Tibetan)
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Whole medical systems • Mind-body interventions • Biologically based therapies • Manipulative therapy • Energy therapies
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Alternative medicine • Glossary of alternative medicine • List of people in alternative medicine
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Traditional Chinese medicine/dried goods shop in Tsim Sha Tsui, Hong KongTraditional Chinese medicine (also known as TCM, simplified Chinese: 中医; traditional Chinese: 中医; pinyin: zhōngyī) includes a range of traditional medical practices originating in China. It is considered a Complementary or Alternative Medical system in much of the western world while remaining as a form of primary care throughout most of Asia.

TCM practices include treatments such as herbal medicine, acupuncture, dietary therapy, Tui na and Shiatsu massage; often Qigong and Taiji are also strongly affiliated with TCM.

TCM theory is extremely complex and originated thousands of years ago through meticulous observation of nature, the cosmos, and the human body. Major theories include those of Yin-yang, the Five Phases, the human body Channel system, Zang Fu organ theory, six confirmations, four layers, etc.

Contents [hide]
1 History
1.1 Ancient (classical) TCM history
1.2 Timeline
2 Theory
2.1 Basic theory and model of the body
2.2 Modern TCM theory
3 Diagnostics
3.1 Techniques
4 Methods of treatment
5 Branches
6 Scientific view
6.1 Efficacy
6.2 Safety
6.2.1 In Practice
6.2.2 Allergy
6.2.3 Toxins and contaminants
6.2.4 Lack of standardization
6.2.5 Vague naming
7 Relationship with Western medicine
8 Animal products
9 Opposition
10 Modernization
11 See also
12 Footnotes
13 References
14 Further reading
15 External links
15.1 Online databases

[edit] History

[edit] Ancient (classical) TCM history

Yin-yang symbolMuch of the philosophy of traditional Chinese medicine derived from the same philosophical bases that Taoist and Buddhist philosophies are based on, and reflects the classical Chinese belief that the life and activity of individual human beings have an intimate relationship with the environment at all scales.[1] It has also been noted that early traditional Chinese medicine stemmed from Taoist masters who had an extraordinary sense of the body and its workings through their many hours of meditation. This may be why TCM also inherited many of the principles inherent to Daoism (Taoism).

During the golden age of his reign from 2698 to 2596 B.C, as a result of a dialogue with his minister Qibo (岐伯), the Yellow Emperor is supposed by Chinese tradition to have composed his Neijing Suwen (《内经·素问》) or Inner Canon: Basic Questions, also known as the Huangdi Neijing (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon). The book's title is often mistranslated as Yellow Emperor's Classic of Internal Medicine. Modern scholarly opinion holds that the extant text of this title was compiled by an anonymous scholar no earlier than the Han dynasty just over two-thousand years ago.

During the Han Dynasty (202 BC –220 AD), Zhang Zhongjing (张仲景/张仲景), the Hippocrates of China, who was mayor of Chang-sha toward the end of the 2nd century AD, wrote a Treatise on Cold Damage, which contains the earliest known reference to Neijing Suwen. Another prominent Eastern Han physician was Hua Tuo (c. 140 – c. 208 AD), who anesthetized patients during surgery with a formula of wine and powdered hemp. Hua's physical, surgical, and herbal treatments were also used to cure headaches, dizziness, internal worms, fevers, coughing, blocked throat, and even a diagnosis for one lady that she had a dead fetus within her that needed to be taken out. The Jin dynasty practitioner and advocate of acupuncture and moxibustion, Huang-fu Mi (215 - 282 AD), also quoted the Yellow Emperor in his Jia Yi Jing (甲乙经/甲乙经), ca. 265 AD. During the Tang dynasty, Wang Bing claimed to have located a copy of the originals of the Neijing Suwen, which he expanded and edited substantially. This work was revisited by an imperial commission during the 11th century AD.

There were noted advances in Chinese medicine during the Middle Ages. Emperor Gaozong (r. 649–683) of the Tang Dynasty (618–907) commissioned the scholarly compilation of a materia medica in 657 that documented 833 medicinal substances taken from stones, minerals, metals, plants, herbs, animals, vegetables, fruits, and cereal crops.[2] In his Bencao Tujing ('Illustrated Pharmacopoeia'), the scholar-official Su Song (1020–1101) not only systematically categorized herbs and minerals according to their pharmaceutical uses, but he also took an interest in zoology.[3][4][5][6] For example, Su made systematic descriptions of animal species and the environmental regions they could be found, such as the freshwater crab Eriocher sinensis found in the Huai River running through Anhui, in waterways near the capital city, as well as reservoirs and marshes of Hebei.[7]

Contact with Western culture and medicine has not displaced TCM. While there may be traditional factors involved in the persistent practice, two reasons are most obvious in the westward spread of TCM in recent decades. Firstly, TCM practices are believed by many to be very effective, sometimes offering palliative efficacy where the practices of Western medicine fail or unable to provide treatment, especially for routine ailments such as flu and allergies, or when Western medicine fails to relieve patients suffering from chronic ailments. TCM has been shown to be effective in the treatment of chronic, functional disorders, such as migraines and osteoarthritis, and is traditionally used for a wide range of functional disorders. Secondly, TCM provides an alternative to otherwise costly procedures whom many can not afford, or which is not covered by insurance. There are also many who turn to TCM to avoid the toxic side effects of pharmaceuticals.

TCM of the last few centuries is seen by at least some sinologists as part of the evolution of a culture, from shamans blaming illnesses on evil spirits to "proto-scientific" systems of correspondence;[8] any reference to supernatural forces is usually the result of romantic translations or poor understanding and will not be found in the Taoist-inspired classics of acupuncture such as the Huang Di Nei Jing. The system's development has, over its history, been analysed both skeptically and extensively, and the practice and development of it has waxed and waned over the centuries and cultures through which it has travelled[9] - yet the system has still survived thus far. It is true that the focus from the beginning has been on pragmatism, not necessarily understanding of the mechanisms of the actions - and that this has hindered its modern acceptance in the West. This, despite that there were times such as the early 18th century when "acupuncture and moxa were a matter of course in polite European society"[10]

The term "TCM" describes the modern practice of Chinese medicine as a result of sweeping reforms that took place after 1950 in the People's Republic of China. The term "Classical Chinese medicine" (CCM) often refers to medical practices that rely on theories and methods dating from before the fall of the Qing Dynasty (1911). Advocates of CCM portray it as less influenced by Western and political agendas than TCM.

[edit] Timeline

Macerated medicinal liquor with wolfberry, iguana, and ginseng, for sale at a traditional medicine market in Xi'an.The history of TCM can be summarized by a list of important doctors and books.

Unknown, Huángdì nèijīng (黄帝内经/黄帝内经) (Yellow Emperor's Inner Canon) - Sùwèn (素问/素问) and Língshū (灵枢/灵枢). The earliest classic of TCM passed on to the present.
Warring States Period (5th century BC to 221 BC): Silk manuscripts recording channels and collaterals, Zubi shiyi mai jiu jing (足臂十一脉灸经/足臂十一脉灸经) (Moxibustion Classic of the Eleven Channels of Legs and Arms), and Yinyang shiyi mai jiu jing (阴阳十一脉灸经/阴阳十一脉灸经) (Moxibustion Classic on the Eleven Yin and Yang Channels). The latter was part of a cache of texts found in Mawangdui in the 1970s.
Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) to Three Kingdoms Period (220 - 280 AD):
Zhenjiu zhenzhong jing (针灸枕中经/针灸枕中经) (Classic of Moxibustion and Acupuncture Preserved in a Pillow) by Huà Tuó (华佗/华佗).
Shanghan zabing lun (伤寒杂病论/伤寒杂病论), which has since been split into two texts: the Shānghán lùn (伤寒论/伤寒论) ("Treatise on Cold Damage [Disorders]" - focusing on febrile conditions attributed to "Cold") and the Jingui yaolue (金匮要略) ("Essentials of the Golden Cabinet" - focusing on "miscellaneous illnesses") by Zhāng Zhòngjǐng (张仲景/张仲景).
Jìn Dynasty (265-420): Zhēnjiǔ jiǎyǐ jīng (针灸甲乙经/针灸甲乙经) (Systematic Classic of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Huángfǔ Mì (皇甫谧/皇甫谧).
Tang Dynasty (618–907)
Beiji qianjin yaofang (备急千金要方/备急千金要方) (Emergency Formulas Worth a Thousand in Gold) and Qianjin yifang (千金翼方) (Supplement to the Formulas Worth a Thousand in Gold) by Sūn Sīmiǎo (孙思邈/孙思邈).
Waitai miyao (外台秘要/外台秘要) (Arcane Essentials from the Imperial Library) by Wang Tao (王焘/王焘).
Song Dynasty (960 – 1279):
Tóngrén shūxué zhēnjiǔ tújīng (铜人腧穴针灸图经/铜人腧穴针灸图经) (Illustrated Manual of the Practice of Acupuncture and Moxibustion at (the Transmission) (and other) Acu-points, for use with the Bronze Figure) by Wáng Wéiyī (王惟一).
Yuan Dynasty (1271 to 1368): Shísì jīng fāhuī (十四经发挥/十四经发挥) (Exposition of the Fourteen Channels) by Huá Shòu (滑寿/滑寿).
Ming Dynasty (1368 to 1644): golden age of acupuncture and moxibustion. Many famous doctors and books. To name only a few:
Zhēnjiǔ dàquan (针灸大全/针灸大全) (A Complete Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Xu Feng (徐凤/徐凤).
Zhēnjiǔ jùyīng fāhuī (针灸聚英发挥/针灸聚英发挥) (An Exemplary Collection of Acupuncture and Moxibustion and their Essentials) by Gāo Wǔ (高武).
Zhēnjiǔ dàchéng (针灸大成/针灸大成) (Compendium of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Yáng Jìzhōu (杨继洲/杨继洲), completed in 1601.
Běncǎo gāngmù (本草冈目/本草纲目) (Compendium of Materia Medica) by Lǐ Shízhēn (李时珍/李时珍), the most complete and comprehensive pre-modern herbal book (completed in 1578).
Wenyi lun (温疫论/温疫论), by Wu Youxing 吴有性 (1642).
Qing Dynasty (1644-1912):
Yizong jinjian (医宗金鉴/医宗金鉴) (Golden Mirror of the Medical Tradition) compiled by Wu Quan (吴谦/吴谦) under imperial commission.
Zhenjiu fengyuan (针灸逢源/针灸逢源) (The Source of Acupuncture and Moxibustion) by Li Xuechuan (李学川/李学川).
Wenre lun (温热论/温热论), by Ye Tianshi (叶天士/业天士).
Wenbing tiaobian (温病条辨/温病条辨) (Systematized Identification of Warm-factor disorders) compiled by Wu Jutong (吴鞠通) in 1798.[11]

[edit] Theory
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Dried plants and animals parts are used in traditional Chinese medicines. In the image are dried lingzhi, snake, turtle plastron, Lou han fruit, and species of ginseng.The foundation principles of Chinese medicine are not necessarily uniform, and are based on several schools of thought. Received TCM can be shown to be influenced by Taoism, Buddhism, and Neo-Confucianism.[12]

Since 1200 BC, Chinese academics of various schools have focused on the observable natural laws of the universe and their implications for the practical characterisation of humanity's place in the universe. In the I Ching and other Chinese literary and philosophical classics, Chinese writers described general principles and their applications to health and healing.

Porkert, a Western medical doctor, placed Chinese medical theory in context as:

Chinese medicine, like many other Chinese sciences, defines data on the basis of the inductive and synthetic mode of cognition. Inductivity corresponds to a logical link between two effective positions existing at the same time in different places in space. (Conversely, causality is the logical link between two effective positions given at different times at the same place in space.) In other words, effects based on positions that are separate in space yet simultaneous in time are mutually inductive and thus are called inductive effects. In Western science prior to the development of electrodynamics and nuclear physics (which are founded essentially on inductivity), the inductive nexus was limited to subordinate uses in protosciences such as astrology. Now Western man, as a consequence of two thousand years of intellectual tradition, persists in the habit of making causal connections first and inductive links, if at all, only as an afterthought. This habit must still be considered the biggest obstacle to an adequate appreciation of Chinese science in general and Chinese medicine in particular. Given such different cognitive bases, many of the apparent similarities between traditional Chinese and European science which attract the attention of positivists turn out to be spurious.[13]

[edit] Basic theory and model of the body

An old Chinese medical chart on acupuncture meridians
Interactions of Five Chinese Elements - Cycles of Balance and Cycles of ImbalanceMain article: TCM model of the body
The following text needs to be harmonized with text in TCM model of the body.

Traditional Chinese medicine is largely based on the philosophical concept that the human body is a small universe with a set of complete and sophisticated interconnected systems, and that those systems usually work in balance to maintain the healthy function of the human body. The balance of yin and yang is considered with respect to qi ("breath", "life force", or "spiritual energy"), blood, jing ("kidney essence", including "semen"), other bodily fluids, the five elements, emotions, and the soul or spirit (shen). TCM has a unique model of the body, notably concerned with the meridian system. Unlike the Western anatomical model which divides the physical body into parts, the Chinese model is more concerned with function. Thus, the TCM spleen is not a specific piece of flesh, but an aspect of function related to transformation and transportation within the body, and of the mental functions of thinking and studying.

There are significant regional and philosophical differences between practitioners and schools which in turn can lead to differences in practice and theory.

Theories invoked to describe the human body in TCM include:

Channels, also known as "meridians"
Five elements
Qi
Three jiaos also known as the Triple Burner, the Triple Warmer or the Triple Energiser
Yin and Yang
Zang Fu theory
The Yin/Yang and five element theories may be applied to a variety of systems other than the human body, whereas Zang Fu theory, meridian theory and three-jiao (Triple warmer) theories are more specific.

There are also separate models that apply to specific pathological influences, such as the Four stages theory of the progression of warm diseases, the Six levels theory of the penetration of cold diseases, and the Eight principles system of disease classification.

[edit] Modern TCM theory
This section needs more detail, citations, better links, or all three. Also : How widespread is the belief that TCM and fractals are somehow interconnected? Someone must have come up with the idea, who was it?

Third philosophy: Fractal (similar) view[14]
Qi is the `information - energy - material' mix unity flow [15], Qi sets, qi element, sub-Qi sets.
Mathematics physics Yin or Yang
TCM fractal sets[16]
Fractal Yin Yang sets: Df=1.
Fractal Five elements sets: Df=1.4650, Yin Yang Five elements sets Df=2.0959.[17]
Fractal Zang Xiang theory:[18] the heart series, the liver series, the spleen series, the lung series, the kidney system.
Fractal Channel ( Meridian (Chinese medicine) Jingluo),CHANNELS AND MESH-NETWORK,NO VESSEL. TCM channel is fractal, complex, pluralistic, rough, not smooth, non-tube dissection structure.[19]

[edit] Diagnostics

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